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How to Write and Format Headings in Academic Writing

Published on March 15, 2019 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The goal of using headings in a document is not only to divide information, but also to allow easy navigation of the document. In academic writing , headings help readers find the specific information they want while retaining a sense of how that information fits with everything else in the document.

To test for overall heading clarity, ask yourself the following: from reading your headings in sequence, would an informed reader understand…

• The content of the document as a whole?
• The specific content of each section?
• How each section fits with the others?

If not, your headings aren’t effective , and may need some improvement.

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Table of contents

Headings vs. titles, how long should headings be, using descriptive headings, technical terms in headings, capitalization, formatting and sequencing, other interesting articles.

Although heading and titles are similar, they are distinct: A title leads the entire document and captures its content in one or two phrases; a heading leads only a chapter or section and captures only the content of that chapter or section. Read more in our article on writing good titles in academic writing .

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Headings should be as long as it takes to clearly communicate the content of the sections they head. However, each heading should be as concise as possible – a good rule of thumb is to limit the heading length to one line.

Higher-level vs. lower-level headings

Higher-level headings often make do with a single word (e.g. “ Introduction ” or “ Methods ”), while lower-level headings are often longer. This is because higher-level headings cover more general content and provide an overview. One word is clear enough because everyone already knows what happens in an introduction chapter – nothing more needs to be said.

Lower-level headings should use more specific terminology to help clarify the content of the section. These headings help readers find the exact information they’re looking for.

The main goal of a heading is to inform the reader of what content they can find in that section, so make your headings as descriptive as possible. The examples below show one non-descriptive heading and three descriptive headings that provide the reader with much more information.

• Profile of GPS technology
• Function of GPS in aviation
• GPS before 1999

Avoiding repetitive headings

No two sections should focus on the exact same content, so no two headings should be identical. Instead of closing a chapter with “Summary,” for example, try making the heading little more descriptive: “Summary of X .”

Documents in fields that rely heavily on jargon and technical language will contain headings that might not be clear to every reader. That’s fine as long as you keep your reader’s knowledge level in mind. However, if you don’t need the jargon to give a specific idea of your content, then avoid it.

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At the outset, make a plan for how you will deal with matters of  capitalization , formatting and sequencing of headings. Headings at the same level should be formatted the same. For instance, “Section 2.2” should get the same treatment as “Section 4.1”. They should also have parallel structure .

Often, your style guide or university will offer specific directions on how to approach the capitalization, formatting, and sequencing of headings, so it’s wise to check before you start writing them. For example,  APA headings and MLA headings  require specific formatting.

Using automatic heading styles in Word

To avoid having to format each heading separately, it’s smart to use the heading styles feature offered by Microsoft Word, Google Docs and many other word-processing softwares.

An extra benefit of using these heading styles is that you can automatically generate and update a table of contents. This will save you a lot of time later on. Read more about this in our article on creating a  table of contents .

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
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Formatting Research Paper Headings and Subheadings

Different style guides have different rules regarding the formatting of headings and subheadings in a paper, but what information you should actually put into your subheadings is a different question and often up to personal taste. Here we quickly summarize general guidelines, different approaches, and what not to do when choosing headings for a research paper.

Does it matter how I name my sections and subsections?

The main sections of a research paper have general headers and are often journal-specific, but some (e.g., the methods and discussion section) can really benefit from subsections with clear and informative headers. The things to keep in mind are thus the general style your paper is supposed to follow (e.g., APA, MLA), the specific guidelines the journal you want to submit to lists in their author instructions , and your personal style (e.g., how much information you want the reader to get from just reading your subsection headers). 

Table of Contents:

• Style Guides: Rules on Headings and Subheadings
• What Sections and Subsections Do You Need? 
• How Should You Name Your Sections and Subsections?
• Avoid These Common Mistakes

Style Guides: Research Paper Heading and Subheading Format

Headers identify the content within the different sections of your paper and should be as descriptive and concise as possible. That is why the main sections of research articles always have the same or very similar headers ( Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion ), with no or only small differences between journals. However, you also need to divide the content of some of these sections (e.g., the method section) into smaller subsections (e.g., Participants, Experimental Design, and Statistical Analysis ), and make sure you follow specific journal formatting styles when doing so. 

If the journal you submit to follows APA style , for example, you are allowed to use up to five levels of headings, depending on the length of your paper, the complexity of your work, and your personal preference. To clearly indicate how each subsection fits into the rest of the text, every header level has a different format – but note that headers are usually not numbered because the different formatting already reflects the text hierarchy.

APA style headings example structure

Level 1 Centered, Bold, Title Case

Text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 2 Left-aligned, Bold, Title Case

Level 3 Left-aligned, Bold Italic, Title Case

Level 4     Indented, Bold, Title Case, Period . Text begins on the same                    

                                 line and continues as a regular paragraph.

Level 5     Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case, Period. Text begins on the                           

                                 same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

If you only need one section header (e.g. Methods ) and one level of subsection headers (e.g., Participants, Experimental Design, and Statistical Analysis ), use Level 1 and Level 2 headers. If you need three levels of headings, use Levels 1, 2, and 3 (and so on). Do not skip levels or combine them in a different way. 

If you write a paper in Chicago style or MLA style , then you don’t need to follow such exact rules for headings and subheadings. Your structure just has to be consistent with the general formatting guidelines of both styles (12-pts Times New Roman font, double-spaced text, 0.5-inch indentation for every new paragraph) and consistent throughout your paper. Make sure the different formatting levels indicate a hierarchy (e.g., boldface for level 1 and italics for level 2, or a larger font size for level 1 and smaller font size for level 2). The main specifics regarding Chicago and MLA headings and subheadings are that they should be written in title case (major words capitalized, most minor words lowercase) and not end in a period. Both styles allow you, however, to number your sections and subsections, for example with an Arabic number and a period, followed by a space and then the section name. 

MLA paper headings example structure

1. Introduction

2. Material and Methods

2.1 Subject Recruitment

2.2 Experimental Procedure

2.3 Statistical Analysis

3.1 Experiment 1

3.2 Experiment 2

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

What research paper headings do you need?

Your paper obviously needs to contain the main sections ( Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and maybe Conclusion ) and you need to make sure that you name them according to the target journal style (have a look at the author guidelines if you are unsure what the journal style is). The differences between journals are subtle, but some want you to combine the results and discussion sections, for example, while others don’t want you to have a separate conclusion section. You also need to check whether the target journal has specific rules on subsections (or no subsections) within these main sections. The introduction section should usually not be subdivided (but some journals do not mind), while the method section, for example, always needs to have clear subsections.

How to Name Your Sections and Subsections

The method section subheadings should be short and descriptive, but how you subdivide this section depends on the structure you choose to present your work – which can be chronological (e.g., Experiment 1, Experiment 2 ) or follow your main topics (e.g., Visual Experiment, Behavioral Experiment, Questionnaire ). Have a look at this article on how to write the methods for a research paper if you need input on what the best structure for your work is. The method subheadings should only be keywords that tell the reader what information is following, not summaries or conclusions. That means that “ Subject Recruitment ” is a good methods section subheading, but “ Subjects Were Screened Using Questionnaires ” is not.  

The subheadings for the result section should then follow the general structure of your method section, but here you can choose what information you want to put in every subheading. Some authors keep it simple and just subdivide their result section into experiments or measures like the method section, but others use the headings to summarize their findings so that the reader is prepared for the details that follow. You could, for example, simply name your subsections “ Anxiety Levels ” and “ Social Behavior ,” if those are the measures you studied and explained in the method section. 

Or, you could provide the reader with a glimpse into the results of the analyses you are going to describe, and instead name these subsections “ Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Mutant Mice ” and “ Normal Social Behaviors in Mutant Mice .” While keeping headings short and simple is always a good idea, such mini-summaries can make your result section much clearer and easier to follow. Just make sure that the target journal you want to submit to does not have a rule against that. 

Common Heading and Subheading Mistakes 

Subheadings are not sentences.

If your heading reads like a full sentence, then you can most probably omit the verb or generally rephrase to shorten it. That also means a heading should not contain punctuation except maybe colons or question marks – definitely don’t put a period at the end, except when you have reached heading level 4 in the APA formatting style (see above) and the rules say so.  

Be consistent

Always check your numbering, for example for spaces and periods before and after numbers (e.g., 3.2. vs 3.2 ), because readability depends on such features. But also make sure that your headings are consistent in structure and content: Switching between short keyword headings (e.g., “ Experiment 2 ”) and summary headings (e.g., “ Mice Do not Recognize People ”) is confusing and never a good idea. Ideally, subheadings within a section all have a similar structure. If your first subsection is called “ Mice Do not Recognize People ,” then “ People Do not Recognize Mice” is a better subheader for the next subsection than “Do People Recognize Mice? ”, because consistency is more important in a research paper than creativity. 

Don’t overdo it

Not every paragraph or every argument needs a subheading. Only use subheadings within a bigger section if you have more than one point to make per heading level, and if subdividing the section really makes the structure clearer overall.

Before submitting your journal manuscript to academic publishers, be sure to get English editing services , including manuscript editing or paper editing from a trusted source. And receive instant proofreading with Wordvice AI, our AI online text editor , which provides unlimited editing while drafting your research work.

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How do I style headings and subheadings in a research paper?

Headings and subheadings can help organize and structure your writing. In general, longer and more complex works warrant more of them than shorter ones. Avoid overusing headings in short projects; they should never be used to compensate for poor structure or to explain an underdeveloped idea.

When headings are called for in your writing project, observe the basic guidelines below.

The paper or chapter title is the first level of heading, and it must be the most prominent.

Headings should be styled in descending order of prominence. After the first level, the other headings are subheadings—that is, they are subordinate. Font styling and size are used to signal prominence. In general, a boldface, larger font indicates prominence; a smaller font, italics, and lack of bold can be used to signal subordination. For readability, don’t go overboard: avoid using all capital letters for headings (in some cases, small capitals may be acceptable):

Heading Level 1

Heading Level 2

Heading Level 3

Note that word-processing software often has built-in heading styles.

Consistency

Consistency in the styling of headings and subheadings is key to signaling to readers the structure of a research project. That is, each level 1 heading should appear in the same style and size, as should each level 2 heading, and so on. Generally avoid numbers and letters to designate heads unless you are working in a discipline where doing so is conventional. Note that a heading labeled “1” requires a subsequent heading labeled “2,” and a heading labeled “a” requires a subsequent heading labeled “b.” 

In a project that is not professionally designed and published, headings should be flush with the left margin, to avoid confusion with block quotations. (The exception is the paper or chapter title, which is centered in MLA style.)

For readability, it is helpful to include a line space above and below a heading, as shown in this post.

No internal heading level should have only one instance. For example, if you have one level 1 heading, you need to have a second level 1 heading. (The exceptions are the paper or chapter title and the headings for notes and the list of works cited.) You should also generally have text under each heading.

Capitalization

Capitalize headings like the titles of works, as explained in section 1.5 of the MLA Handbook .

The shorter, the better.

APA 7th Edition Style Guide: Headings in APA

• About In-text Citations
• In-Text Examples
• What to Include
• Volume/Issue
• Bracketed Descriptions
• URLs and DOIs
• Book with Editor(s)
• Book with No Author
• Book with Organization as Author
• Book with Personal Author(s)
• Chapters and Parts of Books
• Classical Works
• Course Materials
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Multi-Volume Works
• Newspaper Article
• Patents & Laws
• Personal Communication
• Physicians' Desk Reference
• Social Media
• Unpublished Manuscripts/Informal Publications (i.e. course packets and dissertations)
• Formatting Your Paper
• Formatting Your References
• Annotated Bibliography
• Headings in APA
• APA Quick Guide
• NEW!* Submit your Paper for APA Review

What are headings?

Headings, sections, subsections, or levels of subordination are a style of dividing your research paper into major parts, then minor subsections. Most college papers do not need headings, especially if you are only producing two to five pages. However, if your professor requests you use headings or your are writing an especially long or detailed paper, then use headings to help readers navigate your text. Follow the APA style rules for creating the correct level of heading. Always start with a level one heading and drill down to the last subsection possible (five) in order as seen below. Instructions and examples for headings are available on p. 47- 49 of the new APA 7th Edition manual.

Levels of Headings

Additional headings resources.

• APA Style: Headings This page of the APA Style Blog provides more details about styling paper section headings in APA style.
• Heading Levels Template: Student Paper APA Style 7th Edition This example student paper clearly illustrates how to style section headings including the paper title and the Introduction section (which should not be labeled Introduction as APA assumes all papers begin with an introduction section).

Proper Title Case vs. lowercase paragraph heading

Proper title case is using both uppercase and lowercase letters in a title. It calls for the major words to be capitalized while any small conjunctions are made smaller, i.e., 

The Title of this Paper is Lengthy

Lowercase paragraph heading calls for the first word to be capitalized along with any proper nouns contained within the heading, i.e., 

        The title of this heading is much shorter and all lowercase except for the first word.

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• Comprehensive Guide to Headings and Subheadings in APA 7.0

Section 1: Introduction to Headings and Subheadings in APA 7.0-

In academic writing, the use of headings and subheadings is crucial for organizing and structuring a paper. APA (American Psychological Association) style, specifically in its 7th edition, provides clear guidelines on how to effectively use headings and subheadings to enhance readability and comprehensibility of research papers, essays, and other scholarly works. This section will provide a comprehensive introduction to the importance, purpose, and benefits of using headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 format.

Purpose of Headings and Subheadings

Headings and subheadings serve as visual cues to help readers navigate through the content of a paper. They create a hierarchical structure, indicating the relationships between different sections and subsections, and aid in organizing ideas and presenting information in a logical manner. By using headings and subheadings, writers can effectively divide their work into manageable and coherent sections, making it easier for readers to comprehend and follow the main arguments and supporting details.

Importance of Headings and Subheadings

Clear and well-structured headings and subheadings are essential in academic writing for several reasons. First and foremost, they enhance the overall readability of the paper by breaking down the text into smaller, digestible chunks. This organization allows readers to quickly identify and locate specific information, especially when they are scanning or skimming through the document.

Secondly, headings and subheadings contribute to the coherence and flow of the paper. By providing a clear roadmap, they guide the reader through the main ideas, supporting evidence, and key points presented in each section. This not only improves the overall structure of the paper but also helps maintain the logical progression of thoughts and arguments.

Additionally, headings and subheadings assist both readers and writers in comprehending complex topics. They enable writers to organize their thoughts, ensuring that each section focuses on a specific aspect or theme. This organization facilitates a deeper understanding of the subject matter for both the writer during the drafting process and the reader during the consumption of the paper.

Formatting Guidelines for Headings and Subheadings

APA 7.0 provides specific rules and formatting guidelines for using headings and subheadings. These guidelines include the use of different levels of headings, capitalization rules, and placement within the paper. Understanding and adhering to these guidelines is crucial for maintaining consistency and conformity with APA style.

The APA 7.0 formatting guidelines for headings and subheadings are based on a five-level hierarchy, with each level indicating the level of importance and hierarchy of information. Level 1 headings are the highest level, followed by Level 2, Level 3, and so on. Each level has a specific formatting style, such as font size, boldness, and indentation, to differentiate it from the other levels. Furthermore, APA 7.0 also provides guidance on the appropriate use of sentence case, title case, and capitalization in headings and subheadings. For instance, Level 1 headings are typically written in sentence case and are centered and bolded. Level 2 headings are aligned to the left margin, bolded, and written in title case. To maintain clarity and consistency, APA 7.0 also provides recommendations on the number of headings to use within a paper. It suggests that at least two headings should be used in any given section, as a single heading alone may not adequately represent the content covered.

Section 2: The Purpose and Importance of Headings and Subheadings in APA 7.0

Facilitating information retrieval.

One of the primary purposes of headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 is to facilitate information retrieval for readers. When faced with a lengthy document, readers often engage in scanning or skimming techniques to locate specific information or sections of interest. Well-structured headings and subheadings act as signposts, allowing readers to quickly identify the content they are seeking without having to read the entire text. By providing a clear and organized hierarchy, headings guide readers to the main sections of a paper, while subheadings further break down the content into more specific subsections. This hierarchical structure enables readers to navigate the document with ease, locating relevant information efficiently. Thus, headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 contribute significantly to the overall accessibility and user-friendliness of academic papers.

Enhancing Readability and Comprehensibility

Headings and subheadings play a vital role in enhancing the readability and comprehensibility of academic writing. They help break up large blocks of text into smaller, digestible sections, preventing the overwhelming feeling that dense paragraphs can create. By visually separating different sections and subsections, headings and subheadings allow readers to mentally prepare for the content they are about to encounter. Additionally, headings and subheadings improve the flow and coherence of a paper. They provide a roadmap for readers, helping them understand the organization and structure of the author's arguments and supporting evidence. Well-crafted headings and subheadings enable readers to follow the logical progression of ideas and maintain a clear understanding of the paper's main points. Finally, headings and subheadings aid in the comprehension of complex topics. By breaking down the content into smaller, focused sections, readers can grasp the material more easily. Headings act as cognitive cues, preparing readers for the information presented in each section. This approach not only facilitates understanding but also allows readers to engage with the content at a deeper level, promoting knowledge retention.

Organizing and Structuring Ideas

Headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 serve as valuable tools for organizing and structuring ideas within a paper. They help writers divide their work into meaningful sections, each addressing a specific aspect or theme related to the overall topic. This organization ensures that information is presented in a coherent and logical manner, making it easier for both the writer and the reader to navigate the paper.

By using headings and subheadings, writers can create a clear outline for their work, ensuring that each section has a distinct focus. This outline acts as a framework, guiding the writer in presenting their arguments and supporting evidence in a systematic and organized way. Writers can use headings to delineate major sections or main ideas, while subheadings allow for further subcategorization and exploration of subtopics.

Furthermore, headings and subheadings assist writers in structuring their thoughts during the writing process. By providing a visual representation of the paper's organization, headings help writers maintain a coherent flow of ideas and prevent the inclusion of irrelevant or tangential information. This structured approach not only improves the overall quality of the paper but also enhances the writer's ability to communicate their ideas effectively.

Conveying the Hierarchical Relationship of Information

Another important purpose of headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 is to convey the hierarchical relationship of information. By assigning different levels to headings, the writer can indicate the relative importance and order of ideas within the paper. Higher-level headings represent broader themes or major sections, while lower-level headings address more specific subtopics or subsections. This hierarchical structure helps readers understand the organization and logical flow of the paper at a glance. It allows them to grasp the overall structure and the relationships between different sections without having to read the entire document. Additionally, the use of indentation and formatting styles for each level of heading further reinforces the hierarchical relationship and aids in visual differentiation.

Section 3: Formatting Guidelines for Headings and Subheadings in APA 7.0

Proper formatting of headings and subheadings is crucial in APA 7.0 style to ensure consistency, clarity, and readability in academic writing. This section will delve into the specific formatting guidelines provided by APA 7.0 for headings and subheadings, including the use of different levels, capitalization rules, and placement within the paper.

Levels of Headings

APA 7.0 introduces a five-level hierarchy for headings, each denoting a different level of importance and significance within the paper. These levels provide a structured framework for organizing the content and help readers understand the organization and flow of ideas. Here are the five headings in APA 7.0:

Level 1: Centered, Bold and Title Case

            Text begins here.

Level 2: Left-Aligned, Bold and Title Case

Level 3: Left-Aligned, Bold, Italics, and Title Case

Level 4: Left-Aligned, Bold, Title Case, and Period. Text begins here.

Level 5: Left-Aligned, Bold, Title Case, Italics, and Period . Text begins here.

Section 4: Organizing and Structuring Your Paper

Using headings and subheadings in apa 7.0.

Organizing and structuring your paper effectively is crucial for presenting your ideas in a logical and coherent manner. Headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 play a vital role in achieving this goal by providing a clear framework for organizing your content. This section will delve into strategies and best practices for utilizing headings and subheadings to organize and structure your paper in accordance with APA 7.0 guidelines.

Preparing an Outline

Before you begin writing your paper, it is helpful to create an outline that outlines the main sections and subsections you intend to cover. An outline acts as a roadmap, allowing you to visualize the overall structure and flow of your paper. It serves as a foundation for developing meaningful headings and subheadings that accurately represent the content and facilitate logical organization. Start by identifying the major sections that your paper will include, such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. These major sections will serve as Level 1 headings in APA 7.0. Next, break down each major section into subsections that address specific subtopics or aspects related to the main theme. These subsections will be represented by Level 2 headings. Depending on the complexity and depth of your paper, you may further divide the subsections into sub-subsections using Level 3, Level 4, and Level 5 headings. Creating a comprehensive outline not only helps you organize your thoughts but also ensures that you cover all the necessary components of your paper. It allows you to see the relationships between different sections and subsections, enabling you to present your arguments and evidence in a logical and coherent sequence.

Maintaining Consistency and Parallelism

Consistency is key when it comes to organizing and structuring your paper using headings and subheadings. It is important to establish a consistent framework that is followed throughout the entire document. Consistency ensures that readers can easily understand the hierarchy and relationships between different sections and subsections. When creating headings and subheadings, aim for parallelism in terms of grammatical structure and formatting. Parallelism means that headings at the same level should have a similar grammatical structure and formatting style. For instance, if you choose to use noun phrases for Level 2 headings, maintain this pattern consistently across all Level 2 headings in your paper. This helps readers navigate through the content smoothly and maintain a sense of coherence. Furthermore, parallelism extends to the use of punctuation and capitalization within headings and subheadings. Maintain consistent capitalization rules, such as sentence case for Level 1 headings and title case for Level 2 headings. This uniformity enhances the visual hierarchy and clarity of your paper.

Balancing Depth and Granularity

Effective organization and structuring involve finding the right balance between depth and granularity in your headings and subheadings. Level 1 headings represent major sections and should encapsulate broad themes or concepts, providing an overview of what will be discussed within each section. Level 2 headings, as subsections, delve into more specific topics or aspects related to the main theme of the major section.

Reviewing and Revising the Organization

Organizing and structuring your paper using headings and subheadings is not a one-time task. It is an iterative process that requires regular review and revision to ensure optimal clarity and coherence. Once you have completed the initial draft of your paper, review the organization of your headings and subheadings. Ask yourself if the structure effectively reflects the flow of your ideas and supports your main argument. Consider whether the headings accurately represent the content of each section and subsection. During the review process, pay attention to transitions between sections and subsections. Ensure that the headings and subheadings create a smooth transition from one topic to another, guiding readers through the logical progression of your paper. If you notice any gaps or inconsistencies, revise and refine the organization accordingly. Additionally, seek feedback from peers, mentors, or instructors. Their fresh perspective can provide valuable insights into the clarity and effectiveness of your headings and subheadings. Incorporate their feedback and make necessary adjustments to improve the overall organization and structure of your paper.

Section 5: Common Mistakes to Avoid in Using Headings and Subheadings in APA 7.0

While using headings and subheadings in APA 7.0 can greatly improve the organization and readability of your paper, it's important to be aware of common mistakes that can compromise the effectiveness of your headings. By understanding and avoiding these mistakes, you can ensure that your headings enhance the clarity and coherence of your academic writing. This section will explore some common mistakes to avoid when using headings and subheadings in APA 7.0.

Inconsistent Formatting

One of the most common mistakes is inconsistent formatting of headings and subheadings. In APA 7.0, it is crucial to maintain consistency in capitalization, alignment, and formatting styles across headings at the same level. Inconsistencies can confuse readers and disrupt the visual hierarchy of your paper. Ensure that all Level 1 headings have the same formatting, all Level 2 headings have the same formatting, and so on. Consistency in formatting contributes to the overall professionalism and readability of your work.

Poor Alignment and Spacing

Another mistake to avoid is incorrect alignment and spacing of headings and subheadings. In APA 7.0, Level 1 headings are centered and typically start on a new page or a new line with an extra line space before and after the heading. Level 2 headings and lower-level headings, however, are left-aligned and generally require an extra line space before the heading but not after. Failure to align and space headings correctly can create confusion and disrupt the logical flow of your paper. Review APA 7.0 guidelines carefully to ensure proper alignment and spacing of your headings.

Lack of Parallelism

Parallelism, or consistent grammatical structure, is crucial when using headings and subheadings. Headings at the same level should follow a similar structure to maintain coherence and readability. For example, if you use noun phrases for Level 2 headings, ensure that all Level 2 headings follow this pattern. Lack of parallelism can make your headings appear disjointed and may confuse readers. Consistently apply parallel structure within each level of headings to create a smooth and organized flow of information.

Overcomplicating the Heading Structure

While it is important to provide a clear and hierarchical structure to your paper, overcomplicating the heading structure can lead to confusion and excessive fragmentation. Strive to find a balance between providing enough detail to cover your content effectively and avoiding an excessive number of headings and subheadings. Each heading should represent a meaningful subdivision and contribute to the overall organization and coherence of your paper. Aim for a clear and concise heading structure that guides readers without overwhelming them with excessive levels or overly specific subdivisions.

Lack of Descriptiveness

Headings and subheadings should be descriptive and informative to accurately represent the content covered within each section. Avoid using generic or ambiguous headings that do not provide a clear indication of what readers can expect to find. Vague headings can leave readers uncertain about the content or make it challenging to locate specific information within your paper. Ensure that your headings succinctly capture the main ideas or themes of each section, guiding readers through your content effectively.

Ignoring the Reader's Perspective

When creating headings and subheadings, it's important to consider the perspective of your readers. Put yourself in their shoes and think about how your headings will facilitate their understanding and navigation through your paper. Consider whether your headings effectively communicate the main points, guide readers through the logical flow of your arguments, and enable them to locate specific information easily. Ignoring the reader's perspective can result in headings that are unclear, unhelpful, or inconsistent, hindering the overall readability and comprehension of your work.

Neglecting to Revise and Edit Headings

Headings should not be an afterthought or treated as static elements in your paper. Neglecting to revise and edit your headings can lead to inaccuracies, lack of clarity, or poor alignment with the final content of your paper. As you progress through the writing process, continuously review and refine your headings to ensure they accurately represent the content and flow of your arguments. Make necessary adjustments, reword headings for better clarity, and ensure that they align with the finalized structure and organization of your paper.

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APA Headings and Seriation

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

APA Style uses a unique headings system to separate and classify paper sections. Headings are used to help guide the reader through a document. The levels are organized by levels of subordination, and each section of the paper should start with the highest level of heading. There are 5  heading levels  in APA. Regardless of the number of levels, always use the headings in order, beginning with level 1. The format of each level is illustrated below:

Thus, if the article has four sections, some of which have subsections and some of which don’t, use headings depending on the level of subordination. Section headings receive level one format. Subsections receive level two format. Subsections of subsections receive level three format. For example:

Method  (Level 1)

Site of Study  (Level 2)

Participant Population  (Level 2)

Teachers  (Level 3)

Students  (Level 3)

Results  (Level 1)

Spatial Ability  (Level 2)

Test One  (Level 3)

     Teachers With Experience.  (Level 4)

     Teachers in Training.  (Level 4)

     Teaching Assistants .  (Level 5)

Test Two  (Level 3)

Kinesthetic Ability  (Level 2)

In APA Style, the Introduction section never gets a heading and headings are not indicated by letters or numbers. For subsections in the beginning of a paper (introduction section), the first level of subsection will use Level 2 headings — the title of the paper counts as the Level 1 heading. Levels of headings will depend upon the length and organization of your paper. Regardless, always begin with level one headings and proceed to level two, etc.

Special headings called section labels are used for certain sections of a paper which always start on a new page.

• Paper title
• Appendix A (and so on for subsequent appendices)

These labels should be positioned on their own line at the top of the page where the section starts, in bold and centered. 

APA also allows for seriation in the body text to help authors organize and present key ideas. For lists where a specific order or numbered procedure is necessary, use an Arabic numeral directly followed by a period, such as:

On the basis of four generations of usability testing on the Purdue OWL, the Purdue OWL Usability Team recommended the following:

• Move the navigation bar from the right to the left side of the OWL pages.
• Integrate branded graphics (the Writing Lab and OWL logos) into the text on the OWL homepage.
• Add a search box to every page of the OWL.
• Develop an OWL site map.
• Develop a three-tiered navigation system.

Numbered lists should contain full sentences or paragraphs rather than phrases. The first word after each number should be capitalized, as well as the first word in any following sentence; each sentence should end with a period or other punctuation.

For lists that do not communicate hierarchical order or chronology, use bullets:

In general, participants found the user-centered OWL mock up to be easier to use. What follows are samples of participants' responses:

• "This version is easier to use."
• "Version two seems better organized."
• "It took me a few minutes to learn how to use this version, but after that, I felt more comfortable with it."

Authors may also use seriation for paragraph length text.

For seriation within sentences, authors may use letters:

On the basis of research conducted by the usability team, OWL staff have completed (a) the OWL site map; (b) integrating graphics with text on the OWL homepage; (c) search boxes on all OWL pages except the orange OWL resources (that is pending; we do have a search page); (d) moving the navigation bar to the left side of pages on all OWL resources except in the orange area (that is pending); (e) piloting the first phase of the three-tiered navigation system, as illustrated in the new Engagement section.

Authors may also separate points with bullet lists:

On the basis of the research conducted by the usability team, OWL staff have completed

• the OWL site map;
• integrating graphics with text on the OWL homepage;
• search boxes on all OWL pages except the orange OWL resources (that is pending; we do have a search page);
• moving the navigation bar to the left side of pages on all OWL resources except in the orange area (that is pending);
• piloting the first phase of the three-tiered navigation system, as illustrated in the new Engagement section.

If your bulleted list is part of the sentence and is not preceded by a colon, treat the bullets like a part of the sentence, adhering to standard capitalization and punctuation. This option is helpful for complex or longer bulleted sentences that may be more difficult to read without the aid of punctuation. For items in a bulleted list that are phrases rather than sentences, no punctuation is necessary.

APA Style 7th Edition: Citing Your Sources

• Basics of APA Formatting
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• Social Media
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What are headings?

Levels of headings.

• Academic Integrity and Plagiarism
• Additional Resources
• Reference Page

Headings are used to effectively organize ideas within a study or manuscript.  It can also highlight important items, themes or topics within sections.  By creating concise headings, the reader can anticipate key points and track the development of your argument.  The heading levels establish the hierarchy of each section and are designated by their formatting.

Adapted from American Psychological Association. (2009). Format for Five Levels of Heading in APA Journals. Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed., p. 62) Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

• If you need to use subsections in any given section, use a least two, otherwise omit their use.
• Do not label headings with numbers or letters
• Use of title case : Use of both upper and lower case letters, all major words are capitalized
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Home » Research Paper Title – Writing Guide and Example

Research Paper Title – Writing Guide and Example

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Research Paper Title

Research Paper Title is the name or heading that summarizes the main theme or topic of a research paper . It serves as the first point of contact between the reader and the paper, providing an initial impression of the content, purpose, and scope of the research . A well-crafted research paper title should be concise, informative, and engaging, accurately reflecting the key elements of the study while also capturing the reader’s attention and interest. The title should be clear and easy to understand, and it should accurately convey the main focus and scope of the research paper.

Examples of Research Paper Title

Here are some Good Examples of Research Paper Title:

• “Investigating the Relationship Between Sleep Duration and Academic Performance Among College Students”
• “The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment: A Systematic Review”
• “The Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Exploring the Effects of Social Support on Mental Health in Patients with Chronic Illness”
• “Assessing the Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial”
• “The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Consumer Behavior: A Systematic Review”
• “Investigating the Link Between Personality Traits and Leadership Effectiveness”
• “The Effect of Parental Incarceration on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Exploring the Relationship Between Cultural Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Adaptation: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Assessing the Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Chronic Pain Management”.
• “The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis”
• “The Impact of Climate Change on Global Crop Yields: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Exploring the Relationship between Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement in Elementary School Students”
• “The Ethics of Genetic Editing: A Review of Current Research and Implications for Society”
• “Understanding the Role of Gender in Leadership: A Comparative Study of Male and Female CEOs”
• “The Effect of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial”
• “The Impacts of COVID-19 on Mental Health: A Cross-Cultural Comparison”
• “Assessing the Effectiveness of Online Learning Platforms: A Case Study of Coursera”
• “Exploring the Link between Employee Engagement and Organizational Performance”
• “The Effects of Income Inequality on Social Mobility: A Comparative Analysis of OECD Countries”
• “Exploring the Relationship Between Social Media Use and Mental Health in Adolescents”
• “The Impact of Climate Change on Crop Yield: A Case Study of Maize Production in Sub-Saharan Africa”
• “Examining the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”
• “An Analysis of the Relationship Between Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment”
• “Assessing the Impacts of Wilderness Areas on Local Economies: A Case Study of Yellowstone National Park”
• “The Role of Parental Involvement in Early Childhood Education: A Review of the Literature”
• “Investigating the Effects of Technology on Learning in Higher Education”
• “The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Opportunities and Challenges”
• “A Study of the Relationship Between Personality Traits and Leadership Styles in Business Organizations”.

How to choose Research Paper Title

Choosing a research paper title is an important step in the research process. A good title can attract readers and convey the essence of your research in a concise and clear manner. Here are some tips on how to choose a research paper title:

• Be clear and concise: A good title should convey the main idea of your research in a clear and concise manner. Avoid using jargon or technical language that may be confusing to readers.
• Use keywords: Including keywords in your title can help readers find your paper when searching for related topics. Use specific, descriptive terms that accurately describe your research.
• Be descriptive: A descriptive title can help readers understand what your research is about. Use adjectives and adverbs to convey the main ideas of your research.
• Consider the audience : Think about the audience for your paper and choose a title that will appeal to them. If your paper is aimed at a specialized audience, you may want to use technical terms or jargon in your title.
• Avoid being too general or too specific : A title that is too general may not convey the specific focus of your research, while a title that is too specific may not be of interest to a broader audience. Strive for a title that accurately reflects the focus of your research without being too narrow or too broad.
• Make it interesting : A title that is interesting or provocative can capture the attention of readers and draw them into your research. Use humor, wordplay, or other creative techniques to make your title stand out.
• Seek feedback: Ask colleagues or advisors for feedback on your title. They may be able to offer suggestions or identify potential problems that you hadn’t considered.

Purpose of Research Paper Title

The research paper title serves several important purposes, including:

• Identifying the subject matter : The title of a research paper should clearly and accurately identify the topic or subject matter that the paper addresses. This helps readers quickly understand what the paper is about.
• Catching the reader’s attention : A well-crafted title can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading the paper. This is particularly important in academic settings where there may be many papers on the same topic.
• Providing context: The title can provide important context for the research paper by indicating the specific area of study, the research methods used, or the key findings.
• Communicating the scope of the paper: A good title can give readers an idea of the scope and depth of the research paper. This can help them decide if the paper is relevant to their interests or research.
• Indicating the research question or hypothesis : The title can often indicate the research question or hypothesis that the paper addresses, which can help readers understand the focus of the research and the main argument or conclusion of the paper.

Advantages of Research Paper Title

The title of a research paper is an important component that can have several advantages, including:

• Capturing the reader’s attention : A well-crafted research paper title can grab the reader’s attention and encourage them to read further. A captivating title can also increase the visibility of the paper and attract more readers.
• Providing a clear indication of the paper’s focus: A well-written research paper title should clearly convey the main focus and purpose of the study. This helps potential readers quickly determine whether the paper is relevant to their interests.
• Improving discoverability: A descriptive title that includes relevant keywords can improve the discoverability of the research paper in search engines and academic databases, making it easier for other researchers to find and cite.
• Enhancing credibility : A clear and concise title can enhance the credibility of the research and the author. A title that accurately reflects the content of the paper can increase the confidence readers have in the research findings.
• Facilitating communication: A well-written research paper title can facilitate communication among researchers, enabling them to quickly and easily identify relevant studies and engage in discussions related to the topic.
• Making the paper easier to remember : An engaging and memorable research paper title can help readers remember the paper and its findings. This can be especially important in fields where researchers are constantly inundated with new information and need to quickly recall important studies.
• Setting expectations: A good research paper title can set expectations for the reader and help them understand what the paper will cover. This can be especially important for readers who are unfamiliar with the topic or the research area.
• Guiding research: A well-crafted research paper title can also guide future research by highlighting gaps in the current literature or suggesting new areas for investigation.
• Demonstrating creativity: A creative research paper title can demonstrate the author’s creativity and originality, which can be appealing to readers and other researchers.

About the author

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Organizing Your Research Paper with Headings

Organizing a research paper is an important skill for both students and professionals alike. By establishing clear headings, readers can quickly identify the purpose of each section and make connections between topics more easily. In this article, we will discuss how to effectively organize your research paper with informative headings that are easy to follow and convey key information about the content within.

I. Introduction to Headings for Research Papers

Ii. benefits of using headings in research papers, iii. types of section heading formats, iv. guidelines for writing structured and descriptive headings, v. developing consistent numbering systems for subheadings, vi. best practices on how to organize your paper with different levels of heading hierarchy.

• VII. Conclusion: Utilizing an Effective Organization Structure When Crafting a Research Paper

Headings are an important element in writing a research paper as they provide structure and organizational hierarchy. They allow readers to quickly identify the main points of a document and understand what it is about. Headings should be used consistently throughout the paper, from introduction to conclusion.

• Level 1 Heading: This heading typically serves as the title for your entire research paper.
• Level 2 Headings: These headings divide up each section of your research paper into subsections. Level two headings can be further divided by level three or four headings if necessary.

“Organizing” content under distinct headings helps to create clarity, establish relationships between ideas, highlight themes, break down large chunks of information into smaller parts that make it easier to process and evaluate; In this way many aspects of written communication such as coherence, conciseness (i.e., succinctness), logical flow/sequence can be improved significantly with proper use of well-designed subhead within a broader topic area.

Structured Layout for Clear Writing Organizing your research paper into headings is an effective way to structure the content in a clear and concise manner. It allows readers to quickly identify what information can be found in each section, making it easier to follow along. Additionally, by using heading styles appropriately (i.e., Heading 1, Heading 2 etc.) you enable search engines like Google Scholar or academic library databases to more easily index your work which increases its discoverability online.

For example, if you are writing a literature review that compares multiple studies on the same topic then providing separate subheadings for each study will help make it simpler for readers – and computers –to locate relevant information at-a-glance instead of having them scroll through long blocks of text looking for answers they need fast! This also helps authors avoid unintentional omissions when covering various topics within their research paper with headings such as ‘Findings’, ‘Implications’ or ‘Limitations’ being included as needed throughout the document’s body content.

In the third section of our exploration into types of heading formats, we turn to research papers. When writing a research paper, it is imperative that one presents their work in an organized and structured manner for clear comprehension by readers. To do this effectively, headings are employed throughout the text to allow for easier navigation and demarcation between different areas of discussion.

The most common approach used with these types of documents is known as APA style , where five levels can be distinguished using various font sizes and formatting techniques such as italicized or bolded words: level 1 (most significant), then 2-5 (in decreasing order). For example; a Level 1 header might read “ Introduction” , while its corresponding subsections could have titles like ‘Background’, ‘Literature Review’ etc at Level 3. Moreover, within those sections you may choose to add bullet points (

) which help further divide topics when discussing them briefly – something often seen in conclusion sections.

As mentioned previously there are other less widely adopted methods for indicating structure through headers; two examples being MLA style which has fewer distinctions among subheadings than APA does – just three instead of five–and Oxford style where all divisions start from left-aligned rather than centered alignments.

No matter what particular format you opt for though, having some form of organization via distinctive headings will always be necessary if you want your reader to gain maximum understanding out of your document!

An effective heading structure should be descriptive and organized, giving readers a comprehensive overview of your paper. Many types of documents, from research papers to blog posts, benefit from structured headings that make them easier to scan quickly.

For example, when writing a research paper with headings you might include the following: I. Introduction; II. Literature Review; III. Methodology; IV. Results & Analysis . Each heading should concisely explain the topic of its corresponding section in language that’s easy to understand at first glance. Your headings shouldn’t contain more than 10-12 words each – anything longer may become too cumbersome for reader comprehension.

Organizing a research paper in an orderly manner can be difficult. Therefore, creating consistent numbering systems for subheadings is important to help readers understand the material being presented. Developing Numbered Subheading Systems

One way to ensure that all headings and subheadings are numbered consistently is by creating a hierarchical system of labels. Labels should indicate which heading or subsection they refer to, allowing readers easily find related content within the document. Additionally, these labels should include numbers indicating how deep into the hierarchy they go: The main section would be labeled with “1,” while subsections under it will have increasing number values (e.g., 1a). This allows everyone reading your paper to immediately know where one idea ends and another begins in relation to its parent topic(s).

The same system can also be applied when incorporating sources within research papers; each source citation should clearly indicate what type of information it contains as well as which major/subtopic it falls under if necessary (i.e., “2c” for a book referenced from Section 2 subsection c). This makes navigating long documents much easier by enabling readers quickly jump between different topics without having sift through many pages just trying figure out where each piece of evidence fits in contextually.

• This creates greater cohesion among ideas.
• It ensures you don’t miss any key points.

Using Headers Effectively When writing a research paper, it’s important to use headers to indicate different levels of the document’s hierarchy. By doing this, readers are able to quickly identify and refer back to key points in your work. The following best practices will help you utilize headers effectively when organizing your paper:

• Use headings at different levels. When creating a heading hierarchy for your paper, make sure that you’re using headings on various levels throughout the document. For example, if you’re submitting an essay or article for publication purposes, consider using one main header followed by several subheaders beneath it.
• Utilize clear language. Your headers should be descriptive and succinct – avoid complex phrasing or jargon that may confuse readers. Aim for clarity and accuracy so as not to distract from the overall message of your piece.

In addition, create specific titles based on each section’s content rather than generic labels like “Conclusion” or “Introduction” – this adds more context and enables easier navigation while reading through the text.

For instance, let us assume we need 4 sections which include introduction/abstract (Level 1 Heading), background (Level 2 Heading), methods (level 3) & results & discussion(level 3). Then our final output would look something like this:

Introduction

The Power of an Effective Organization

Organizing your research paper effectively is key to a successful outcome. The structure of the paper should be planned before any content is written, as this will create an outline for you to follow when crafting the body and conclusion. An effective organization starts with a clear title page that outlines the topic, research question, and purpose of the project; followed by abstracts, introduction sections where relevant data can be presented in tables or figures if needed; each section heading described as part of a logical flow; subsections containing paragraphs discussing related topics and finally end with concluding remarks addressing all points addressed throughout the paper.

Unnumbered lists can also provide easy-to-follow guidance for readers looking into specific information within your work:

• Introduction – background info on study + current literature on topic.
• Methodology – methodology used (if applicable).
• Results & Discussion –presentation/discussionof results.

Finally, having an ending conclusion can often strengthen your argument further while driving home important findings fromyour efforts thus far. This final paragraph could restate main arguments made previously while introducing future potential research paths associated with thematter at hand — adding some sense closure but leaving roomfor additional exploration moving forward.

The research paper writing process can be daunting, but by breaking it down into smaller parts and organizing with headings, the task is made easier. By understanding the structure of an academic essay, students can begin to better organize their ideas for a more cohesive document. With practice and dedication, any student has the potential to become a master at structuring essays in this format. It is our hope that this article has provided useful guidance on how best to go about using headings when constructing your research paper so that you are able to produce quality work which meets all expectations set out by your professor or instructor.

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On this site, you will find general information about MLA and APA format styles with specific requirements regarding title pages, headings, margins, and pagination. Regardless of the style manual you follow, use only standard fonts for your paper. Do not enlarge the font to make your paper appear longer; do not make the font smaller so you can fit your paper into the prescribed number of pages. Do not use a cursive or decorative font.

This site offers only examples of the more common citations students use. For a wider range of topics, you need to consult the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers or the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Both style books are available in the bookstore and at the library.

MLA Formats:

General format and title page: Your research paper needs to be typed and double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches). Use one-inch margins on all four sides of each page. Unless your professor specifically calls for one, a title page is unnecessary. In place of a title page, MLA style requires a heading on the first page of your paper. The heading appears in the top, left corner of the first page, double-spaced. The heading includes your name, your professor's name, the course you are taking, and the date. Center your title one line below the heading. Double-space the title if it extends past the first line. Write your title in capital and lower-case letters. Do not underline your title or put it in quotation marks. The page number preceded by your last name should appear in the upper right corner one-half inch from the top. Do not use a hyphen, period, or any other punctuation with the page number. Use this example as a guide:

Headings: If your paper is long you may divide it into sections (for example, "Literature Review," "Research Method and Results," and "Discussion"). In some cases, you may divide one or more of those sections into other sections (for example, you might divide the second section listed above into "Participants," "Interview Protocol," and "Caveats"). Your purpose would be to improve clarity. Divisions might help a reader better follow a discussion that extends for twenty-five written pages. Consistently using the same style of heading for each level informs the reader whether the upcoming topic is a subtopic of the previous discussion or another central issue. Select a form for each level of division (for example, you might write Level 1 centered, caps and lower case; Level 2 flush left, lower case only, etc.); use the same form for the same level your paper. Regardless of the system you choose, the title on the title page should conform to MLA standards.

Margins and spacing: All margins should measure one inch. Page numbers will appear within the top margin, but no other text should extend past the one-inch margins. Indent five spaces to begin paragraphs. Double-space the text of your paper.

Pagination: Number all pages of your paper in the upper right corner, one-half inch from the top. Do not write -2- or p. 2. The number should appear by itself with no punctuation.

APA Formats

General format and title page: Your research paper needs to be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches). Use one to one-and-a-half inch margins on all four sides of each page. APA (American Psychological Association) calls for a title page. A running head on this page is not necessary unless you are submitting your paper for publication. At the top of your title page, flush right and one-half inch from the top edge of the paper (inside your top margin), you will write what is called a "manuscript header." A manuscript header consists of one or two key words from you title followed by the page number (see example). Your title will appear centered on this page, written in capital and lower-case letters. If your title extends past one line, double-space between lines. Your name will appear centered and in capital and lower-case letters one double-spaced line below your title. Your university name (Oregon State University) will be placed one double-spaced line below your name. If you are a communication major, you also will include below the institution's name the title of your department. For example:

The pages of your manuscript should be numbered consecutively, beginning with the title page, as part of the manuscript header in the upper right corner of each page. Your references should begin on a separate page from the text of the paper under the label "References" (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. Appendices and notes should be formatted similarly.

Headings: APA style prescribes five heading levels, but they vary according to the length of your paper. If you are writing a formal piece to be submitted to an undergraduate conference, closely consult the APA style book. For class papers, ask for your professor's preference. If no preference is given, follow the suggestions written in this section under MLA.

Margins and spacing: Leave margins of at least one inch on all sides of your paper. Page numbers will appear within the top margin, but no other text should extend into the margins. Indent five to seven spaces to begin paragraphs. Double-space the text of your paper.

Pagination: Page numbers should be placed in the top margin one inch from the right side of the paper. The number should appear by itself with no punctuation.

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Practical Ideas on How to Properly Head a Paper

College provides numerous obstacles for students to overcome in different ways. The changes are very apparent, from the freedom to attend classes at your convenience to handling bulky assignments and study requirements.

The way you handle your research papers is also different from what you may be familiar with in high school. There are basic rules to follow in heading a college paper, and once you get those rules down, understanding how to head a paper becomes easy.

Of course, that is easier said than done. So, in this article, we provide you with simple and practical tips on how to properly head a paper.

What is the header for a paper?

A header is a line of text that appears at the top of a page. It usually consists of the author’s last name, the title, and the page number. Essay headers are often needed for different academic texts.

The page header appears at the top margin of every page of your research paper. It normally consists of the page number for student papers only. For professional papers, it consists of the page number and running head.

Headers for any page must be appropriately formatted. They should also be of similar fonts, sizes, and styles placed in the same position on every page. This is often at the top of the page, on the first line.

Why is research paper heading important?

Headers are crucial because they identify the information within the different sections of your paper. They should be as descriptive and concise as possible, with their main sections permitted to have very similar headers to describe each content accurately.

Secondly, headers make your writing look polished and organized. Moreover, a professor examining several student essays would find it easier to sort if the essay pages get mixed up.

Lastly, when writing a proper heading for paper, you may need to divide the content of some sections into smaller subsections. Doing this gives your research content clarity and makes the whole reading process less demanding. However, it is important to follow specific journal formatting styles.

How to write a header for a paper?

In learning how to write heading for your papers, some guidelines will help you along the way. Some tips for writing a good header for your paper include:

• Consider Paper Style

Often, the MLA style is utilised for most papers, including homework assignments. When using this format on your research paper, don’t skip lines between the initial heading. Your heading on each page should contain your last name and the page number in a right-justified format.

Your heading structure will differ from other paper formats you might use in college, such as American Psychological Association (APA) and Chicago Style.

• Understand Your Margins

After format consideration, your heading will often be placed in the upper left-hand corner of the page. Margin size and spacing differ in formatting styles and understanding your margins will enable you to accurately place your headings for any style.

• Use Standard Fonts

After considering your paper style and understanding your margins, use a 12-point font and a standard font style. The Times New Roman font is often used, but Arial, Modern, Lucina, and Palermo can also be used for headers because they are not script-style fonts.

• Writing Names

It would be best to always place your first and last names on the first line, then double space each line of the heading. All lines in the heading are typically justified at the left margin.

Next, put your professor’s name on the nearest line and use their first and last name preceded by Professor. For example, “Professor Eric Thomas” goes on this line. Afterward, place the name of your course on the next line.

The date usually enters the final line, and your first paragraph begins after double spacing.

In learning how to head papers in college or even in high school, you should take note of the guidelines above. Remember the paper format you’re asked to write in, and you don’t have to type a header for each page of your essay. Writing tools like Microsoft Word make it easy to write a header that appears in the correct format at the top of each page.

Easy Guide on Standard Research Paper Headings

Table of Contents

Academic papers are daunting assignments because of their length and complexity. They often include a plethora of ideas that can easily overwhelm the average reader.

This is why it’s important that you break up your paper into sections. It helps make your paper more readable, and it provides readers with a point of reference. If you want to learn how to use a research paper heading properly, read on.

Let’s begin by delving into the essence of the thing we’re trying to write.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a form of writing where the author presents an argument, study, or data meant to draw attention to an issue. Research essays are a common assignment in higher education.

Many students dread them because of their perceived difficulty and complexity. However, students shouldn’t feel daunted by them. While research essays do require a lot of work and effort, they aren’t as difficult as they seem.

Most times, you need only follow a specific format. The format of your essay will vary depending on which style guide you’re following. The main essay styles are:

They each vary in terms of font choices, heading format, page layout, and reference page layout. 

In this guide, we’ll delve into the proper research paper format for headings and subheadings. This guide will also explain the relevance of heading formats.

The Importance of Research Paper Heading Formats

The main sections of a research paper have general headers that represent a shift in idea or mark the start of a new section. Headings and subheadings help organize a wall of text to create content that’s easy to read and follow.

Moreover, they make it easy for readers to understand the logical flow of a paper. It’s a way to cluster ideas under a particular section. It also makes it easy for reviewers to check your work.

Headings are a way to indicate the level of importance of your content. Main sections are divided into subsections representing an aspect of the main section. You can compare your research article to a tree made up of branches (Headings) that further separate into smaller branches (Subheadings). Readers must grasp all the parts of the tree to fully understand its essence.

If you’re unsure of how to format your research paper, refer to the next section. It will show you how to format your headings according to the most popular style guides.

How To Format a Research Paper Heading

Apa research paper heading format.

The APA style allows writers to use a maximum of five heading levels depending on journal length, topic complexity, and personal preference.

Different header formats indicate a shift to a new section. APA style headers don’t use numbering because the difference in design already indicates a change of section. 

For example:

Level 1  Centered, Bold, Use Title Case

Text forms a new paragraph.

Level 2  Left-aligned, Bold, Use Title Case

Level 3  left-aligned, bold italic, use title case.

Text forms a new paragraph

Level 4  Indented, Bold, Use Title Case, Period . Start the text on the same line and continue it as a regular paragraph.

Level 5  indented, bold and italic, use title case, period.  start the text on the same line and continue it as a regular paragraph., mla research paper heading format.

The MLA format isn’t as strict in terms of sectioning format, but it does require writers to follow general formatting guidelines such as:

• 12-pts Times New Roman font
• Double-spaced text
• 0.5-inch indentation for each new paragraph
• Use title case for sections [Capitalize major words, lowercase for everything else.] 

1. Introduction

2. Material and Methods

2.1 Subject Recruitment

2.2 Experimental Procedure

2.3 Statistical Analysis

3.1 Experiment 1

3.2 Experiment 2

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

As evident in the example, the MLA format is simpler and doesn’t require a lot of formatting.

Headings and subheadings are important because they have a direct impact on our ability to read and understand information. Adhering to the standards of the publication style required of you makes it easy to understand and review your paper.

Remember that structure is the key to good literature. Formatting rules bring order to the body of your research paper , and they make finding the different sections easy. 

Feel free to refer to this guide as you write your paper. Best of luck!

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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Title: mm1: methods, analysis & insights from multimodal llm pre-training.

Abstract: In this work, we discuss building performant Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). In particular, we study the importance of various architecture components and data choices. Through careful and comprehensive ablations of the image encoder, the vision language connector, and various pre-training data choices, we identified several crucial design lessons. For example, we demonstrate that for large-scale multimodal pre-training using a careful mix of image-caption, interleaved image-text, and text-only data is crucial for achieving state-of-the-art (SOTA) few-shot results across multiple benchmarks, compared to other published pre-training results. Further, we show that the image encoder together with image resolution and the image token count has substantial impact, while the vision-language connector design is of comparatively negligible importance. By scaling up the presented recipe, we build MM1, a family of multimodal models up to 30B parameters, including both dense models and mixture-of-experts (MoE) variants, that are SOTA in pre-training metrics and achieve competitive performance after supervised fine-tuning on a range of established multimodal benchmarks. Thanks to large-scale pre-training, MM1 enjoys appealing properties such as enhanced in-context learning, and multi-image reasoning, enabling few-shot chain-of-thought prompting.

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What to know about SB 4, the Texas immigration law in the courts now

Becky Sullivan

Texas National Guard soldiers are seen guarding the U.S.-Mexico border in Eagle Pass, Texas. John Moore/Getty Images hide caption

Texas National Guard soldiers are seen guarding the U.S.-Mexico border in Eagle Pass, Texas.

A whirlwind of court orders on Tuesday briefly allowed, then blocked again, a controversial new immigration law in Texas that would allow state and local law enforcement to arrest and deport people who are in the state illegally.

The Biden administration has objected to the law, known as Senate Bill 4, saying that the Constitution and legal precedent establish that the federal government has the exclusive power to enforce immigration law.

Texas' illegal entry law will test states' powers on immigration, border enforcement

While a federal court considers the merits of the law, a legal back-and-forth over whether the bill should take effect in the meantime created chaos Tuesday.

For several hours, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed the law to be enforced. But then, close to midnight, a lower court put the law back on hold and scheduled a last-minute hearing on Wednesday morning.

At the hearing, a three-judge panel questioned the Texas solicitor general about details of the law and heard arguments from the U.S. Department of Justice and the ACLU about why it should be struck down.

The law remains on hold while the appeals court deliberates.

Here's what to know:

What is SB 4?

Senate Bill 4 is a Texas law passed late last year that empowers state and local law enforcement agencies to enforce immigration law. Texas Republicans who championed the legislation say it's a response to the Biden administration's border policies, which they have criticized as being too permissive.

"It's important because it helps address what even the president has called a border crisis," said Texas solicitor general Aaron Nielson at Wednesday's hearing.

Texas has spent over $148 million busing migrants to other parts of the country

The bill would allow state and local police officers to arrest people suspected of being in the country illegally, and it would allow judges to order the deportation of migrants to ports of entry along Texas's border with Mexico, regardless of which country the migrant is from.

The bill was originally set to go into effect on March 5. But the U.S. government and the ACLU both filed lawsuits against it, and a district judge issued a preliminary injunction to block the law from enforcement while the case was being heard.

Texas appealed the injunction to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. The appeals court turned to the Supreme Court, which ultimately allowed the law to go into effect on Tuesday before the appeals court blocked it. (The Supreme Court did not issue an opinion clarifying whether the majority had supported the merits of the law or if it simply viewed its decision as a procedural one.)

Now, the Wednesday hearing at the Fifth Circuit considered the question of whether to allow the district judge's preliminary injunction to take effect — thereby continuing to block SB 4 from enforcement.

What is the legal challenge to the bill?

The Biden administration has argued that Texas overstepped its constitutional limits in passing SB 4, and they maintain that immigration policy and law enforcement are exclusive functions of the federal government.

Critics of SB 4 have cast the law as Texas' attempt to take over those law enforcement capabilities, a notion that Nielson disputed at Wednesday's hearing. "That's really not true," he told the panel. "What Texas wants to do is to be able to coordinate with the federal government."

Federal attorneys, meanwhile, have repeatedly pointed to a 2012 Supreme Court decision known as Arizona vs. United States , a case about a state law in Arizona that sought to create state-level crimes for immigration offenses and empower local law enforcement to check citizenship status and arrest people suspected of being in the country illegally. In a 5-3 decision, the court sided with the federal government and struck down most of Arizona's law.

Because the Texas law goes further than Arizona, Department of Justice attorney Daniel Tenny argued Wednesday, SB 4's provisions should too be blocked. "This is more at the heart at the area that the court has consistently recognized is reserved for the national government," he said.

What do opponents of the law say?

Groups that advocate for civil rights and immigrants' rights have criticized the law over concerns that it could lead to racial profiling. SB 4 would allow law enforcement officers to question someone's immigration status for any reason.

"We know that this law is going to increase racial profiling. We know that this law is going to strip people of their constitutional rights. We know that this law is also going to lead to the mass criminalization of our communities," said Alan Lizarraga, a spokesperson for the Border Network for Human Rights, speaking to the Texas Newsroom .

Opponents also worry that migrants with legitimate claims to asylum could have their federal cases asylum complicated by the Texas law if they come to face state criminal charges.

Mexico also opposes the law. Its foreign affairs ministry said in a statement Tuesday that the country will not accept migrants who have been deported under the Texas law. And it expressed concern for Mexican nationals living in Texas, who it said could now be subject to "expressions of hate, discrimination and racial profiling."

With the case back at the Fifth Circuit, Mexico said it plans to file a legal brief in opposition to SB 4 that lays out how the law could affect the relationship between the two countries, the statement said.

What do law enforcement officers in Texas say about the law?

Local law enforcement officers say they are prepared to enforce the law. But others have said they have not received clear guidance about how to implement it, or whether they'll have resources needed to carry out arrests in large numbers.

"I think we're going to be very selective about the cases we pick up," said Culberson County Sheriff Oscar Carillo, whose jurisdiction is located along the west Texas border. "Our jail is at capacity as we speak today, and to start incarcerating undocumented people and charging them a misdemeanor crime is a discussion I'll have to have with my county attorney," he told the Texas Newsroom on Tuesday.

Wednesday's appeals court hearing revealed the extent to which details of the law's enforcement have yet to be hammered out. Nielson, the Texas solicitor general, struggled to answer a series of questions from Chief Judge Priscilla Richman about how various scenarios would play out.

For instance, when Richman asked how the law would be applied to a person who entered the U.S. illegally through another border state before moving to Texas, Nielson replied, "I confess, your honor, I don't know."

Additional reporting by NPR's Jasmine Garsd and Julian Aguilar of the Texas Newsroom.

The Scholarly Kitchen

What’s Hot and Cooking In Scholarly Publishing

The Latest “Crisis” — Is the Research Literature Overrun with ChatGPT- and LLM-generated Articles?

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Elsevier has been under the spotlight this month for publishing a paper that contains a clearly ChatGPT-written portion of its introduction. The first sentence of the paper’s Introduction reads, “Certainly, here is a possible introduction for your topic:…” To date, the article remains unchanged, and unretracted. A second paper , containing the phrase “I’m very sorry, but I don’t have access to real-time information or patient-specific data, as I am an AI language model” was subsequently found , and similarly remains unchanged. This has led to a spate of amateur bibliometricians scanning the literature for similar common AI-generated phrases, with some alarming results . But it’s worth digging a little deeper into these results to get a sense of whether this is indeed a widespread problem, and where such papers have made it through to publication, where the errors are occurring.

Several of the investigations into AI-pollution of the literature that I’ve seen employ Google Scholar for data collection (the link above, and another here ). But when you start looking at the Google Scholar search results, you notice that a lot of what’s listed, at least on the first few pages, are either preprints, items on ResearchGate, book chapters, or often something posted to a website you’ve never heard of with a Russian domain URL. The problem here is that Google Scholar is deliberately a largely non-gated index. It scans the internet for things that look like research papers (does it have an Abstract, does it have References), rather than limiting results to a carefully curated list of reputable publications. Basically, it grabs anything that looks “scholarly”. This is a feature, not a bug, and one of the important values that Google Scholar offers is that it can reach beyond the more limiting inclusion criteria (and often English language and Global North biased) content of indexes like the Web of Science.

But what happens when one does similar searches on a more curated database, one that is indeed limited to what most would consider a more accurate picture of the reputable scholarly literature? Here I’ve chosen Dimensions , an inter-linked research information system provided by Digital Science, as its content inclusion is broader than the Web of Science, but not as unlimited as Google Scholar. With the caveat that all bibliometrics indexes are lagging, and take some time to bring in the most recently published articles (the two Elsevier papers mentioned above are dated as being from March and June of 2024 and so aren’t yet indexed as far as I can tell), my results are perhaps less worrying. All searches below were limited to research articles (no preprints, book chapters, or meeting abstracts) published after November 2022, when ChatGPT was publicly released.

A search for “Certainly, here is” brings up a total of ten articles published over that time period. Of those ten articles, eight are about ChatGPT, so the inclusion of the phrase is likely not suspect. A search for “as of my last knowledge update” gives a total of six articles, again with four of those articles focused on ChatGPT itself. A search for “I don’t have access to real-time data” brings up only three articles, all of which cover ChatGPT or AI. During this same period, Dimensions lists nearly 5.7M research articles and review articles published, putting the error rate for these three phrases to slip through into publications at 0.00007%.

Retraction Watch has a larger list of 77 items (as of this writing), using a more comprehensive set of criteria to spot problematic, likely AI-generated text which includes journal articles from Elsevier, Springer Nature, MDPI, PLOS, Frontiers, Wiley, IEEE, and Sage. Again, this list needs further sorting, as it also includes some five book chapters, eleven preprints, and at least sixteen conference proceedings pieces. Removing these 32 items from the list suggests a failure rate of 0.00056%.

While many would argue that this does not constitute a “crisis”, it is likely that such errors will continue to rise, and frankly, there’s not really any excuse for allowing even a single paper with such an obvious tell to make it through to publication. While this has led many to question the peer review process at the journals where these failures occurred, it’s worth considering other points in the publication workflow where such errors might happen. As Lisa Hinchliffe recently pointed out , it’s possible these sections are being added at the revision stage or even post-acceptance. Peer reviewers and editors looking at a revision may only be looking at the specific sections where they requested changes, and may miss other additions an author has put into the new version of the article. Angela Cochran wrote about how this has been exploited by unscrupulous authors adding in hundreds of citations in order to juice their own metrics. Also possible, the LLM-generated language may have been added at the pageproof stage (whether deliberately or not). Most journals outsource typesetting to third party vendors, and how carefully a journal scrutinizes the final, typeset version of the paper varies widely. As always, time spent by human editorial staff is the most expensive part of the publishing process, so many journals assume their vendors have done their jobs, and don’t go over each paper with a fine toothed comb unless a problem is raised.

Two other important conclusions can be drawn from this uproar. The first is that despite preprints having been around for decades, those both within and adjacent to the research community clearly do not understand their nature and why they’re different from the peer reviewed literature, so more educational effort is needed. It should not be surprising to anyone that there are a lot of rough early drafts of papers or unpublishable manuscripts in SSRN (founded in 1994) or arXiv (launched in 1991). We’ve heard a lot of concern about journalists not being able to recognize that preprints aren’t peer reviewed, but maybe there’s as big a problem much closer to home. The second conclusion is that there seems to be a perception that appearing in Google Scholar search results offers some assurance of credibility or validation. This is absolutely not the case, and perhaps the fault here lies with t he lack of differentiation between the profile service offered by Google Scholar , which is personally curated by individuals and its search results which are far less discriminating.

Going forward, I would hope that at the journals where the small number of papers have slipped through, an audit is underway to better understand where the language was introduced and how it managed to get all the way to publication. Automated checks should be able to weed out common AI language like this, but they likely need to be run at multiple points in the publication process, rather than just on initial submissions. While the systems in place seem to be performing pretty well overall, there’s no room for complacency, and research integrity vigilance will only become more and more demanding.

David Crotty

David Crotty is a Senior Consultant at Clarke & Esposito, a boutique management consulting firm focused on strategic issues related to professional and academic publishing and information services. Previously, David was the Editorial Director, Journals Policy for Oxford University Press. He oversaw journal policy across OUP’s journals program, drove technological innovation, and served as an information officer. David acquired and managed a suite of research society-owned journals with OUP, and before that was the Executive Editor for Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, where he created and edited new science books and journals, along with serving as a journal Editor-in-Chief. He has served on the Board of Directors for the STM Association, the Society for Scholarly Publishing and CHOR, Inc., as well as The AAP-PSP Executive Council. David received his PhD in Genetics from Columbia University and did developmental neuroscience research at Caltech before moving from the bench to publishing.

25 Thoughts on "The Latest “Crisis” — Is the Research Literature Overrun with ChatGPT- and LLM-generated Articles?"

There is a huge difference between an entire article being written by AI, as the title of this post suggests, and having a few paragraphs being written by AI, as the actual evidence in most of this post suggests. I think the most worrisome part of this is that the journal editors are doing such a poor job that they aren’t catching those obvious “certainly…” type phrases, not because of what they imply about authorship, but just because they don’t belong in the final text at all.

I find the debate about using AI and academic integrity is bringing out an inconsistency in our very reasons for opposing “plagiarism”. That is, is the problem that the ideas aren’t yours per se, or that you are “stealing” another person’s ideas? When the “other person” is not a human, suddenly this distinction is in sharp relief. If you aren’t stealing from someone else, is there still a bad thing happening here, or is this just a much more “humanities” version of using R or SPSS to do your quantitative analysis? Usually I find it frustrating when people mix up copyright law with plagiarism, but in this situation I think copyright law has something useful to inform the plagiarism discussion. Copyright law in the US at least is very clear that non-humans (eg monkeys, elephants, and computers) can’t be credited with authorship/creatorship.

• By Melissa Belvadi
• Mar 20, 2024, 7:59 AM
• Reply to Comment

“Also possible, the LLM-generated language may have been added at the pageproof stage…”. That seems a bit far fetched. More likely some manuscripts don’t get carefully reviewed. More interesting to me than including LLM text in low quality articles is the sophistication of AI generated cell biology images. They’re getting to the point that sleuths like Elisabeth Bik can’t tell them from the real thing.

• By Chris Mebane
• Mar 20, 2024, 8:55 AM

The authors of one of the suspect papers have stated that the inclusion of the text was a cut-and-paste error. Why would such an error be “far fetched” during corrections but less so in other parts of the publication process?

• By David Crotty
• Mar 20, 2024, 9:27 AM

This may be but what’s the excuse for the failure to include the required disclosure statement? Everyone is focusing on the sloppy editing. But, what this signals to me is that there’s probably a bigger crises of non-disclosure, which is a different issue and – given Elsevier doesn’t prohibit the use of generative AI for editorial assistance but does require disclosure – to me is the bigger ethical question. The disclosure should have been made even if their was no copy/paste sloppiness. So, how many authors are using AI and not disclosing – and not tipping their hand by sloppiness?

• By Lisa Janicke Hinchliffe
• Mar 21, 2024, 10:51 AM

In this case, I believe the authors claimed that they had asked ChatGPT for a summary, but found it lacking and decided not to use it. Then it got “accidentally” pasted into some version of the paper. If accurate and believable, then no disclosure was necessary (as they did not deliberately use an AI).

All that said, you do get to the heart of the issue, and why the fuss over a tiny number of papers found with obvious tells is less important than the bigger picture that many are less sloppy and probably using these tools. While I do think it’s reasonable to require disclosure (if publishing is part of the scientific process, then you should record the tools used as you do in the Materials and Methods section for your experiments), I personally don’t think the use of AI in writing is all that problematic. What I care about is whether the experiments/research were/was done correctly, described accurately, and that the conclusions drawn are supported by the data presented. In the end, I don’t really care who (or what) wrote the story about the research, I’m interested in the research and ensuring it’s valid. We know that ghostwriting is fairly rampant in the medical world, and that industry research companies often have publication planners and writers on staff who put together publications. Is this any different ethically, as long as the author who puts their name on the paper vouches for its contents? Is that what matters (I’m staking my reputation on what’s in this document) rather than who/what chose the actual words and put them in that order?

Of course this is a different matter from fraudulent papers where the research wasn’t actually done, and yes, AI does simplify the process of creating fraudulent work, but that’s a separate issue. It does strike me as interesting that the two papers linked to above had AI text in an Introduction and an Abstract, rather than in the Results or the Conclusion sections of the papers.

• Mar 21, 2024, 11:04 AM

I’ve not seen any author statement on either of these examples. I’ve seen one person say they are reporting what one author told him — but that didn’t include that the AI text was found wanting. I did see that the same intermediary say one of the authors says they had emailed Elsevier about this issue post-publication. Everyone decrying how long this is taking to fix and none of the authors just getting the right version out there by posting it up on a preprint server. I mean, for goodness say, it’s not like we need to wait for libraries to tip in a new page of the printed journal. Any way, somehow the authors also turned back page proofs without noticing the inclusion either. So, while I like you am not too concerned about how words get generated in this context (I have a statement in my syllabus this semester that students can use gen AI if they disclosure and explain why they decided it was the best choice), it matters if authors don’t take responsibility for their work and don’t make required disclosures. What other corners are they cutting?

• Mar 21, 2024, 11:14 AM

I remember seeing something from the authors on Twitter, will try to dig it out. Regardless, I agree 100%. When you publish a paper, you are building/risking your reputation and your career. From my researcher days, the notion that I wouldn’t have carefully pored over every single character of every single draft of every paper I published escapes me. Those authors will now always be known as the ChatGPT people, I guess better than those permanently known as the gigantic rat genitals people, but still. If you are so sloppy in your writing, why wouldn’t I expect you to be similarly sloppy in your experiments? What did you accidentally “cut and paste” there?

• Mar 21, 2024, 11:18 AM

In case anyone else is following this convo in the comments, here’s the thread not from the authors I referenced: https://twitter.com/GuyCurtis10/status/1768786985253319040

• Mar 21, 2024, 11:41 AM

This is an interesting discussion; thanks for advancing it. Given the challenges facing scientific and medical publishing, which is a bigger crisis? 1) That overworked, underpaid, stressed, researchers and academics who don’t directly benefit financially from their content are now leveraging AI to speed time to publication, or 2) That the majority of entrenched publishers continue to act as if human friction and delays in getting novel science and groundbreaking medicine to patients and doctors who are trying to improve human suffering, which could be improved significantly with AI, is itself a problem to be dealt with? Full disclosure, I serve as Chief AI Officer of Inizio Medical and am a Founding Board Member of the Society for Artificial Intelligence and Health, but my comment is mine and mine alone.

• By Matt Lewis
• Mar 20, 2024, 9:52 AM

It is alarming that this slipped through after all the work done to tighten up publishing integrity over the last year or two. It suggests more sophisticated fake/fraudulent AI content is also getting through. More generally, it is another embarrassing, public black eye for scholarly publishing and science.

• By Curtis Brundy
• Mar 20, 2024, 10:42 AM

It’s clear from this post that the crisis is not about generative AI, which simply reveals the underlying problem. The real issue is the faulty editorial workflow, which Angela Cochran identified as far back as 2017. The human editor should have the last check of the paper. If you allow authors to make changes, then those changes should be monitored by the editor, and a system such as track changes applied to ensure that any changes the author makes, whether or not requested by the editor, are identifiable for checking.

What this reveals is that scholarly publishing still retains a culture of trust, in this case, trust that the author will not make extensive changes at proof stage. It is no longer possible to run scholarly publishing with the assumption that the author will behave responsibly.

• By Michael Upshall
• Mar 20, 2024, 10:57 AM

I think you’re largely right, but those needs are directly in opposition to the increasing pressure for journals to 1) publish faster, and 2) publish cheaper. As noted in the post, the sorts of human interventions you suggest are the most expensive parts of the process. Would the community accept slower publication and higher APCs/subscription prices in order to ensure this level of scrutiny?

• Mar 20, 2024, 11:00 AM

Well, that’s for the scholarly community to decide, but personally, I don’t think there is a choice, to preserve the credibility of academic publishing.

• Mar 20, 2024, 11:10 AM

What Automated Checks systems do you recommend be used by journals?

• By Deb Whippen
• Mar 20, 2024, 11:24 AM

“Automated” is a loaded word here — every check that I know of requires at least some level of human interpretation and intervention.

That said, there are good recommendations coming out of the STM Research Integrity Hub ( https://www.stm-assoc.org/stm-integrity-hub/ ) and tools include plagiarism checkers, image integrity checkers, and paper mill checkers. As far as I know, there are no reliable automated tools for determining whether text or images were AI-generated. But screening for phrases like the ones mentioned above seems a reasonable step.

And as noted, this makes publishing slower and more expensive.

• Mar 20, 2024, 11:47 AM

I think that screening for phrases, as you say, could work. A mechanism that detects hallucinated content, including fake references/citations, could also help. But then, AI will also evolve…

• By Ron Martinez
• Mar 21, 2024, 5:03 PM

As the EIC of a journal, I read every manuscript that is submitted. Lately, I have detected a handful of manuscripts that have the hallmarks of being generated (all or in part) by an LLM. It is fairly obvious (to me) to identify such manuscripts, because the text reads like “word salad”, that is, bland, general sentences that do not seem to converge on a clear meaning and lack specific details. A superficial reading is not good enough in such cases. As pointed out in the post, having actual humans read the manuscripts or proofs is necessary, but expensive.

• By Constance Senior
• Mar 20, 2024, 2:15 PM

Same here. I had one the other day that was not really in the scope of the journal, had that “word salad” feel you mentioned, and had only 5 total references. (And two of those were fake.)

• Mar 21, 2024, 5:01 PM

Interesting, another question is what percent of peer review reports/peer reviewers are using AI, and is incorrect use of AI in this area able to be detected, I heard this is potentially a growing, and yet somewhat hidden problem as well.

• By Adrian Stanley
• Mar 20, 2024, 4:29 PM

This preprint might be of interest – https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.07183 , “ Monitoring AI-Modified Content at Scale: A Case Study on the Impact of ChatGPT on AI Conference Peer Reviews”, https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.07183

• By Dugald McGlashan
• Mar 21, 2024, 2:53 AM

“time spent by human editorial staff is the most expensive part of the publishing process”

It turns out more and more that the most *expensive* part of the publishing process is editorial and other negligence actively encouraged by those who never tire of finding more “cost-effective” and “streamlined/frictionless” ways to “improve the author experience.” It’s a sure way to steer scholarly publishing towards obsolescence because however happy authors (or their administrators) might be for having their work published, fewer and fewer people will be inclined or able to read this work (and AI reading AI-generated or “enhanced” texts is like an empty house of mirrors).

The cost of not having enough human eyes (i.e., editorial staff and peer reviewers) will be (and already is) exorbitant for both science and the public. High-quality, sustainable science and scholarship is slow and tedious and does not respond to exhortations for speed and efficiency. It’s a non-negotiable feature, not a bug.

• Mar 20, 2024, 4:44 PM

The one thing that is absolutely certain is that no copyeditors have been retained for the journals where these articles have slipped through. No proper copyeditor — one who edits for grammar, spelling, clarity, logic, and flow– is going to allow these kinds of things to pass through.

The big platforms do not do proper copyediting; the provide spelling and grammar checking from international outsourcing firms (packagers) and pay them literally one quarter of what I am paid, or they use their production team (layout, not copyeditors) to do the copyedits.

Copyeditors know that the vast majority of the time, we are the first ones to read a manuscript all the way through, after R&R or when there is no peer review. These instances prove that when we aren’t being hired, no one is reading a manuscript from start to finish.

• By Rudy Leon
• Mar 20, 2024, 6:20 PM

Importantly, the stance of MDPI is relaxed and predictable: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/6/399

Also, I notice a certain trend of affiliates of a certain ’boutique’ subtly promoting Dimensions

• By Ivan Sterligov
• Mar 21, 2024, 2:44 AM

Do you feel that Dimensions is an inappropriate tool to use for these purposes? Which database would have been better?

• Mar 21, 2024, 7:14 AM

Thanks David, you brought some level-headedness to the conversation. Your deep dive into the Digital Science data has me feeling much better about this issue being overblown than I would have originally thought. Also, you make a good point about trying to understand why and how these things happen. An author using GPT to help them with language and accidentally inserting a GPT-phrase is very different than AI writing an article for them.

• By Avi Staiman
• Mar 21, 2024, 9:27 AM

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