physical education definition essay

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013)

Chapter: 1 introduction.

Introduction

P hysical inactivity is a key determinant of health outcomes across the life span. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression, and other diseases. Recent studies have found that in terms of mortality the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking and obesity (Lee et al., 2012). Indeed, the prevalence of physical inactivity, along with this substantial associated disease risk, has been described as a pandemic (Kohl et al., 2012). Further, higher educational achievement and years of schooling are both markers and determinants of better health status, mainly as a result of education’s correlation with improved work and economic conditions, enhanced social psychological resources, and the ability to pursue a healthful lifestyle (Ross and Mirowsky, 1999). There is a long-held belief that health is an important determinant of educational performance, yet only recently has evidence begun to accumulate on a plausible physiologic pathway explaining the influence of one important health behavior—physical activity—on brain function and cognitive processes (see Chapter 4 ). These data increase confidence that improving physical activity and fitness may result in better school achievement and performance.

Although complete data are lacking, the best estimate in the United States is that no more than half of youth meet the current evidence-based guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily (CDC, 2012). Moreover, the proportion of youth who meet this guideline declines with advancing age, so that younger children are more likely to do so than adolescents (Pate et al., 2002). Daily opportunities

for incidental physical activity also have declined for children and adolescents, as they have for adults, as the result of such factors as increased reliance on nonactive transportation, automation of activities of daily living, and greater opportunities for sedentary behavior. In addition, significant disparities in physical activity exist across racial/ethnic and socioeconomic lines (see Chapter 2 ).

The prevalence and health impacts of physical inactivity, together with evidence indicating its susceptibility to change, have resulted in calls for action aimed at increasing physical activity across the life span. A common belief is that, the earlier in life this important health behavior can be ingrained, the greater the impact will be on lifelong health. The question becomes, then, how physical activity among children and adolescents can be increased feasibly, effectively, and sustainably to improve their health, both acutely and throughout life. A recent report of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , singles out schools as “a focal point for obesity prevention among children and adolescents,” stating: “Children spend up to half their waking hours in school. In an increasingly sedentary world, schools therefore provide the best opportunity for a population-based approach for increasing physical activity among the nation’s youth” (IOM, 2012, p. 333).

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

Given the importance of physical activity to health in youth and increasing attention to its role in educational performance, coupled with the potential of schools to provide opportunities to be physically active, a 14-member ad hoc committee of the IOM was convened and charged to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment. The committee was also tasked with reviewing influences of physical activity and physical education on the short- and long-term physical health, cognition and brain health, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents. The committee was asked to make recommendations, as appropriate, regarding approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school. In doing so, the committee was expected to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment; review evidence on the relationship between physical activity, physical education, or physical fitness and physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development; within a life-stage framework, consider the role of physical activity– and physical education–related programs and policies in the school environment in contributing to short- and

long-term health, health behaviors, and development (e.g., motor and cognitive development); recommend, as appropriate, strategic programmatic, environmental, and policy approaches for providing, strengthening, and improving physical activity and physical education opportunities and programs in the school environment, including before, during, and after school; and, as evidence was reviewed, identify major gaps in knowledge and recommend key topic areas in need of research.

Key Terms Used in This Report

Academic Learning Time (ALT)-physical education (PE): A measure used to assess quality physical education instruction. ALT-PE is the time in physical education class during which children are exposed to motor skill development, understanding of movement principles, attainment of health-enhancing levels of fitness, regular engagement in physical activity, socially responsible behaviors in physical activity settings, and an appreciation of the importance of engagement in physical activity.

Active transport: Modes of transportation to and from school that involve physical activity; includes primarily walking and biking.

Classroom physical activity: Opportunities for physical activity integrated into classroom lessons.

Developmentally appropriate physical activity: Physical activity that meets/includes the following criteria: (1) an orderly sequence of motor skills learning, (2) provisions for individual differences, (3) appropriate goal structures, and (4) ample learning time.

Exercise: Planned, structured, and repetitive activity designed to target a particular outcome (e.g., a component of fitness).

Extramural sports: Organized and supervised sports programs sanctioned by the school system that provide opportunities for competition outside the bounds of a particular school.

Intramural sports: Organized and supervised sports programs involving within-school teams and clubs that provide opportunities for all students to participate.

Moderate-intensity physical activity: Physical exertion that is equivalent to brisk walking. Such activities are usually performed at between 3.5 and 6.0 times resting metabolic rate.

Physical activity: Bodily movement that increases energy expenditure.

Physical activity breaks: Brief opportunities for physical activity provided throughout the day, such as during morning announcements.

Physical education: A planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.

Physical fitness: A set of physiologic attributes that are either health related or skill related. Physical fitness is an adaptive physiologic state that varies with growth and maturity status and physical activity.

Recess: A regularly scheduled period within the school day for supervised physical activity and play.

Vigorous-intensity physical activity: Physical exertion that leads to sweating and heavy breathing, such as running, basketball, soccer, and swimming laps; usually performed at or above an intensity of 6.0 times resting metabolic rate.

BACKGROUND AND STUDY CONTEXT

Since before the early 1900s, schools have had a role in providing health care for youth (IOM, 1997). From the single school nurse performing inspections and injury treatment to the provision of screening, health education, and immunizations to today’s school-based health centers, schools have been important in providing health services to children. Throughout the history of school-based health care, access to children for large portions of the day has made schools practical and effective in providing these services (IOM, 1997). With the emergence of obesity as a key health threat for youth, schools are yet again being called on to take a lead role in the health of students.

As noted above, physical activity is an essential component of proximal and distal health indicators in youth (see Chapter 3 ). Recent efforts have led to an evidence-based guideline for physical activity in youth of at least 60 minutes per day, 7 days per week (Strong et al., 2005; Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008) (see Box 1-1 ). Most of the 60 minutes per day should be spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity activities. Further, vigorous physical activities, bone-strengthening activities, and muscle-strengthening activities should be included at least 3 days each week. Such activities should offer variety, be enjoyable, and be age appropriate.

Schools have long provided opportunities for physical activity to children and adolescents, most notably through physical education. Early school-based physical education efforts in the 19th century focused largely

Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans: Active Children and Adolescents

Children and adolescents should perform 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of physical activity daily.

Aerobic: Most of the 60 or more minutes per day should be either moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity and should include vigorous-intensity physical activity at least 3 days per week.

Muscle-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include muscle-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days of the week.

Bone-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include bone-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days of the week.

It is important to encourage young people to participate in physical activities that are appropriate for their age, that are enjoyable, and that offer variety.

SOURCE: HHS, 2008.

on hygiene, gymnastics, performance in sports and games, and (later) military readiness (IOM, 2012). A focus on physical education for health and fitness subsequently emerged, gradually taking hold in the middle of the 20th century (IOM, 1997). Quality school physical education has been recommended as an evidence-based strategy to increase physical activity among youth (Task Force on Community Preventive Services, 2005). Physical education thus has a long history of being a central foundation for health, development, and learning in schools.

Despite the effectiveness of quality physical education (whereby students have an opportunity to learn meaningful content with appropriate instruction and assessments) in increasing physical activity, challenges exist to its equitable and effective delivery. Fiscal pressures, resulting in teacher layoffs or reassignments and a lack of equipment and other resources, can inhibit the offering of quality physical education in some schools and districts. Schools may lack trained physical educators, and safety issues are associated with allowing children to play. Educators and policy makers may lack awareness and understanding of the potential for physical activity to improve academic achievement and the many ways in which physical activity can be and has been successfully incorporated into the school environment. The role of school physical education in providing physical activity for youth is further challenged by a demand for better standardized test scores by increasing classroom academic time and the ensuing policy pressures to do so. Nearly half of school administrators report cutting significant amounts of time from physical education, art, music, and recess to increase time in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001. These challenges have been cited as reasons why the percentage of schools offering physical education daily or at least 3 days each week declined dramatically in U.S. schools between 2000 and 2006 (GAO, 2012).

Children and adolescents engage in different types and patterns of physical activity as the result of a variety of factors, including age and access to resources. Exercise capacity in children and the activities in which they can successfully engage change in a predictable way across developmental periods. Young children are active in short bursts of free play, and their capacity for continuous activity increases as they grow and mature. In adults and likely also adolescents, improved complex motor skills allow for more continuous physical activity, although intermittent exercise offers much the same benefit as continuous exercise when the type of activity and energy expenditure are the same. While the health benefits of sporadic physical activity at younger ages are not well established, children require frequent opportunities for practice to develop the skills and confidence that promote ongoing engagement in physical activity. Physical education curricula are structured to provide developmentally appropriate experiences that

build the motor skills and self-efficacy that underlie lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activity, and trained physical education specialists are uniquely qualified to deliver them.

In the best-possible scenario, however, physical education classes are likely to provide only 10-20 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per session. Physical education, then, although important, cannot be the sole source of the at least 60 minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity recommended to enhance the health of children and adolescents. Other ways to promote physical activity in youth must be systematically exploited to provide physical activity opportunities. Family, neighborhood, and community programs can be a source of such additional opportunities. Moreover, other school-based opportunities, including intramural and extramural sports programs, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity breaks, recess, and before- and after-school programming, all can help youth accumulate the recommended 60 or more minutes per day of physical activity. Recent policy guidance from the National Association of State Boards of Education suggests such an integrated approach (NASBE, 2012).

Although family and community settings are helpful, schools provide a unique framework for physical activity opportunities because of the tremendous opportunity to contact many students multiple times. According to estimates of the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 51 million children aged 5-17 were enrolled in U.S. public schools in 2010; an additional 5.5 million were enrolled in U.S. private schools. Thus, an estimated 96-98 percent of the entire population in this age group was enrolled in an institutional school. Youth spend up to 7 hours each school day in school. Moreover, recent figures suggest that 15 percent of students across all grades attend an after-school program, and 38 percent of parents whose children do not attend such a program say their children would do so if they had access (Afterschool Alliance, 2009). These data, together with the role of schools in health promotion for youth, suggest that more can be done to leverage schools to help children meet the recommendation for at least 60 minutes per day of physical activity.

STUDY APPROACH

The committee recognized that, although physical education and physical activity in the school setting are primarily the responsibility of the education system, schools alone cannot implement the changes across systems required to achieve a healthy and educated future generation. Accomplishing these changes will demand systems approaches influenced by the social and cultural, economic, and physical environments, as well as the drivers of local, state, and national policies (see Figure 1-1 ).

FIGURE 1-1 Context for physical activity and physical education in the school environment.

Changes in a single venue or sector or at a single level or those that are uncoordinated are unlikely to be effective and will do little to effect long-term improvement. Interactions among and between the local school or district and eight additional sectors will be required to achieve the desired outcomes: (1) home and family; (2) transportation, land use, and community design; (3) volunteer and nonprofit community organizations; (4) business and industry; (5) parks, recreation, and sports; (6) neighborhood resources, including safety; (7) health care and public health; and (8) media and communications. These sectors traditionally have operated independently and have not communicated effectively. All, however, share a stake in and responsibility for working to change the conditions that pro-

mote the status quo of decreasing physical activity and increasing sedentary behavior among the nation’s youth.

A Systems Approach

A challenge in current efforts to address the problem of physical inactivity among youth has been an unbalanced attention to individualized behavior change strategies instead of a true public health approach that requires systems thinking (Kohl et al., 2012) (see Box 1-2 for a definition of systems thinking). A systems approach posits that schools may act as a focal point but alone cannot accomplish the task of increasing and sustaining physical activity in youth because multiple systems and sectors in society influence the adoption of an active healthy lifestyle. A systematic review of recent obesity prevention interventions (Krishnaswami et al., 2012) found a significant correlation between engagement with the community and intervention outcomes. Capacity building, needs assessments, dissemination

What Is Meant by Systems Thinking?

A systems approach

•  explicitly designs strategies to focus on interactions and interconnections (integration) between and among different sectors in the community and between individuals and their community environment;

•  accounts for the context and characteristics of a community in planning intervention strategies in order to see the whole picture so that intended and unintended consequences of strategies can be recognized and the strategies altered if required;

•  utilizes a multidisciplinary approach, including community experts, to determine the interactions among systems and sectors necessary to develop feasible interventions that will be sustainable (persistence of changes made and ongoing adoption of new ones) and scalable (capable of being brought to scale to impact many settings) and have reach across cultural and language population subgroups.

of results, and durable partnerships among different sectors can improve health outcomes.

Increasing societal demand for and ingraining values that support a healthier environment and population requires direct engagement and alignment of the priorities of multiple sectors, including those displayed earlier in Figure 1-1 . A systems approach in public health requires identifying key actors that can effect change. Within the local education sector, the actors that can influence physical activity and physical education opportunities for children and adolescents include school board members, superintendents, principals, administrators and coordinators of curricular areas and evaluation, school physical education and pupil services, security, and transportation programs. Parent-teacher organizations and school health advisory councils also are part of a systems perspective on the problem.

To capture the systems perspective on increasing physical activity among children and adolescents, it is important to recognize that efforts must go beyond physical education curricula or physical activity programs per se (see Figure 1-2 ). Components of an intervention should explicitly and directly impact elements of the support infrastructure (at both the school and community levels) that enables high-quality physical education and meaningful opportunities for physical activity throughout the school day. Investments in the support infrastructure should ensure that its elements are well aligned and integrated (i.e., work synergistically) to achieve the goals of school curricula and programs. In addition, opportunities for physical activity throughout the school day should be cohesively designed to bring about a culture of active living and the value of wellness. Finally, the support infrastructure should enable accountability of physical education cur-

FIGURE 1-2 Integrated/coordinated approach to increasing physical activity among children and adolescents in the school environment before, during, and after school. NOTE: PA = physical activity; PE = physical education.

ricula and physical activity programs. In turn, these curricula and programs should be monitored and evaluated to inform iterative improvements to the overall system.

As part of its systems approach, the committee acknowledged that much of what happens in the school setting is part of an overall system of policies and regulations at multiple levels (see Figure 1-3 ). The center of interest is students’ physical activity opportunities and experiences. Such opportunities include physical education, intramural and extramural sports, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity, recess, before- and after-school programs, and other types of breaks. These opportunities and experiences are influenced by a series of federal guidelines, state laws, district policies, and school and classroom policies and practices. The impact of this set of guidelines, laws, policies, and practices is influenced in part by any accompanying assistance or incentives and by whether means of enforcement are in place. In other words, guidelines, laws, and policies

FIGURE 1-3 Influence of policy level and strength of implementation on student experience. NOTE: Arrow weight indicates no implementation, weak implementation, and strong implementation (thin to thick); box shade indicates no law or policy, weak law or policy, and strong law or policy (light to dark).

are more likely to be properly implemented if there are aids and rewards (e.g., funding, training) for doing so and penalties (e.g., less funding, less job security) for not doing so. The varying strengths of influence are depicted in Figure 1-3 by the varying thicknesses of the arrows exiting each level of influence (i.e., federal, state, district, school, classroom). Figure 1-3 also acknowledges other influences, such as other and sometimes competing policies issuing from the same organizational level; competing interests; or a lack of funding, personnel, or space. The arrows veering toward the empty space at the edges of Figure 1-3 indicate that at every level there is likely to be slippage. One study found, for example, that seven of eight high schools in Mississippi and Tennessee had entirely avoided implementation of new state legislation designed to increase levels of physical activity and improve the quality of physical education in high schools. The main barriers to implementation at these schools were the priority given to standardized testing, subordination of physical education to varsity sports, resource constraints, and policy overload (Amis et al., 2012).

Figure 1-3 also suggests that monitoring (surveillance) of federal guidelines, state laws, district policies, and school and classroom policies, plus related incentives and enforcements, is important. Monitoring of students’ physical activity opportunities and experiences is essential because they represent the ultimate outcome of importance, and barriers may have derailed implementation (Amis et al., 2012).

A systems approach demands analysis of existing and potential practical program and policy interactions among the sectors and individuals outlined above, interactions that are necessary for the optimal impact on physical activity. A process of aligning priorities among disparate sectors should lead to new types of intersectoral interactions. These new interactions can potentially produce greater synergistic effects than independent within-sector efforts. Such synergies can in turn allow for opportunities to pool and share resources. For example, synergies that lead to combining efforts in the education and transportation sectors may be more likely to create a sustainable and effective program that promotes active transportation to and from school than such a program implemented only within the education sector. Developing these approaches in a place-based framework will allow for tailoring interventions, taking into account the strengths and constraints, cultural and demographic characteristics, and resources of each local context. The outcomes achieved must be sustainable (persistence of changes made and ongoing adoption of new ones) and scalable (diffusion across settings) and have reach across population subgroups.

Guiding Principles

Early in this study the committee formulated a set of principles that guided its deliberations and its consideration of recommendations:

• Instilling lifelong physical activity in children and adolescents is crucial to the current and future health of the nation, and its long-term benefits should be recognized.

• Systems thinking is needed to develop recommendations for improving physical activity and physical education opportunities in schools in the context of children’s and adolescents’ development, family, home, culture, and community. Unintended consequences, accelerants, barriers, and other factors should be considered.

• Disparities in physical activity and physical education opportunities exist, and their elimination should be a priority in any recommendations for school-based efforts.

• The committee should consider all types of school environments in formulating its recommendations.

• The committee should consider student diversity, including gender, culture, religion, education, resources, and physical ability, in developing its recommendations.

• The committee should consider the practicality of implementation and existing school resources in making its recommendations. In addition, it should consider the challenges and barriers faced by policy makers, principals, teachers, parents/guardians, students, and other stakeholders.

• The committee should base its recommendations on the best-available scientific evidence and promising approaches.

Conceptual Framework

The committee developed a conceptual framework for its work plan and its deliberations (see Figure 1-4 ). In this framework, the proximal and distal outcomes of most interest for this study are measures of academic performance and indicators of health and development in youth. Leading to these two ultimate outcomes of interest are several layers of determinants, programs, and intermediate outcomes reviewed by the committee. At the base of Figure 1-4 are key supports for the multiple programmatic and policy approaches to improving physical activity and physical education in schools.

Although the central programmatic approach to physical activity in schools remains the physical education curriculum, the committee conceptualized multiple additional opportunities, including intramural and

FIGURE 1-4 Conceptual framework for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. NOTE: The framework applies to all opportunities for physical activity and physical education on K-12 school campuses before, during, and after school, including before- and after-school programming. a For example, professional development/credentials, staffing, class size, class/program length and frequency, curricula/instructional materials, equipment, supervision, use of class time (vigorous- and moderate-intensity physical activity), use of technology. b Each approach can occur before, during, or after school.

extramural sports, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity, before- and after-school programs, recess, and other types of breaks. (Although the framework applies to all opportunities for physical activity and physical education on K-12 school campuses before, during, and after school, including onsite preschool and after-school programming, summer was not considered independently.)

Factors affecting a program’s impact toward achievement of the ultimate outcomes include the quality (fidelity) of implementation, the scalability of the program (its ability to move beyond an individual school or class to affect a broader population of schools and youth), and the reach of the program—whether it is available to all students and is unaffected by potential disparities. Finally, the committee believed that sustainability was a critical factor to consider, an issue that is central to the systems thinking that guided its deliberations.

Literature Review

In addressing its charge, the committee identified more than 1,000 articles and reports from the peer-reviewed published literature and from organizations relevant to physical education, physical activity, and health. The focus of the literature review was on gathering available evidence on (1) the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short-and long-term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents and (2) potential physical activity and physical education policies and programs.

The literature search strategy generated search terms based on the committee’s conceptual framework. The initial search strategy paired the terms physical education and physical activity with terms related to themes, including academic achievement , brain development , classrooms , disparities , fitness , intra- and extramural sports , joint-use agreements , mental health , out-of-school time , policy , psychosocial health , recess , sedentary activity , school financing , somatic growth , transport , and weight . Searches were typically limited to U.S. populations and to children and adolescents, with the exception of studies examining the long-term and adult health benefits of childhood activity. See Appendix B and the references in Chapters 2 through 7 for more details on the methodology used and the evidence identified.

A Whole-of-School Approach

School and community policy and regulatory environments impact both the health and learning of children and youth. The “healthy schools” and “healthy communities” initiatives in various countries around the

world, following guidance from the World Health Organization, have placed major emphasis on attempting to create school and community environments that support both physical and psychosocial health (Samdel and Rowling, 2013). In the United States, local “wellness policies” have been mandated for schools receiving U.S. Department of Agriculture support for food and nutrition programs. Recently, these policies have been strengthened, leading to potential new systems of accountability for how healthy the school environment is for both children and staff (Belansky et al., 2009; Schwartz et al., 2009).

Early in its deliberations, the committee defined a whole-of-school approach for physical activity and physical education. In this approach, each opportunity for physical activity that can be tied to school grounds and facilities can be considered together. As seen in Figure 1-5 , such an approach can realistically be expected to provide nearly the full 60 minutes or more of recommended health-enhancing physical activity on school days. Figure 1-5 also reflects the description of programmatic and policy approaches in the committee’s conceptual framework (see Figure 1-4 ).

The committee recommends a whole-of-school approach to physical activity promotion. Under such an approach, all of a school’s components and resources operate in a coordinated and dynamic manner to provide access, encouragement, and programs that enable all students to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity 60 minutes or more each day. A whole-of-school approach encompasses all segments of the school day, including travel to and from school, school-sponsored before-and after-school activities, recess and lunchtime breaks, physical education,

FIGURE 1-5 Comprehensive approach to school-wide physical activity promotion. SOURCE: Beets, 2012. Reprinted with permission from Michael Beets.

and classroom instructional time. Beyond the resources devoted to quality daily physical education for all students, other school resources, such as classroom teachers, staff, administrators, and aspects of the physical environment, are oriented toward physical activity. Intramural and extramural sports programs are available to all who wish to participate, active transportation is used by substantial numbers of children to move from home to school and back again, recess and other types of breaks offer additional opportunities for physical activity, and lesson plans integrate physical activity as an experiential approach to instruction.

A whole-of-school approach encompasses all people involved in the day-to-day functioning of the school, including students, faculty, staff, and parents. It creates an atmosphere in which physical activity is appreciated and encouraged by all these groups. School buildings, outdoor grounds and playgrounds, indoor and outdoor equipment, and streets and pathways leading to a school from the surrounding neighborhood encourage and enable all persons to be more physically active. Moreover, a school is part of a larger system that encompasses community partnerships to help these goals be realized.

Development of Recommendations

The committee’s approach to developing its recommendations was informed by the systems approach and guiding principles outlined above. A consensus process was used to develop and review the overarching recommendations presented in Chapter 8 . In addition, committee members discussed areas for research that, if pursued, would advance the field of physical activity and physical education in schools to further the evidence base.

OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT

The remainder of this report is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 2 describes the status and trends of physical activity behaviors and related school policies. Chapters 3 and 4 , respectively, describe health and development outcomes and academic and cognitive outcomes associated with physical activity and physical education. Chapter 5 provides an overview and discussion of physical education programs and policies in schools, including what a quality program looks like. Chapter 6 presents an overview and discussion of physical activity programs and policies in schools. Chapter 7 summarizes the evidence for the effectiveness of physical activity and physical education programs and policies. Finally, Chapter 8 provides the committee’s recommendations. Appendix A is a glossary of acronyms and terms used in the report, Appendix B provides a detailed description of the study’s methodology, Appendix C provides a summary of data extracted from the

National Association of State Boards of Education’s State School Health Policy Database, Appendix D contains the agenda for workshops held to inform the committee’s deliberations, and Appendix E presents biographical sketches of the committee members.

Afterschool Alliance. 2009. America after 3pm: The most in-depth study of how America’s children spend their afternoons. Washington, DC: Afterschool Alliance.

Amis, J. M., P. M. Wright, B. Dyson, J. M. Vardaman, and H. Ferry. 2012. Implementing childhood obesity policy in a new educational environment: The cases of Mississippi and Tennessee. American Journal of Public Health 102(7):1406-1413.

Beets, M. W. 2012. Before- and after-school physical activity programs including intra-and extramural sports: Challenges and opportunities. Presented at the Workshop on Physical Activity and Physical Education in Schools: Perspectives on Successes, Barriers, and Opportunities, September 20, Washington, DC.

Belansky, E. S., N. Cutforth, E. Delong, C. Ross, S. Scarbro, L. Gilbert, B. Beatty, and J. A. Marshall. 2009. Early impact of the federally mandated local wellness policy on physical activity in rural, low-income elementary schools in Colorado. Journal of Public Health Policy 30(Suppl 1):S141-S160.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2012. Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 61(4):1-162.

GAO (U.S. Government Accountability Office). 2012. K-12 education: School-based physical education and sports programs. Washington, DC: GAO.

HHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). 2008. Physical activity guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: HHS.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 1997. Schools & health: Our nation’s investment . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

IOM. 2012. Accelerating progress in obesity prevention: Solving the weight of the nation . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Kohl, H. W., C. L. Craig, E. V. Lambert, S. Inoue, J. R. Alkandari, G. Leetongin, and S. Kahlmeier. 2012. The pandemic of physical inactivity: Global action for public health. Lancet 380(9838):294-305.

Krishnaswami, J., M. Martinson, P. Wakimoto, and A. Anglemeyer. 2012. Community-engaged interventions on diet, activity, and weight outcomes in U.S. schools: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 43(1):81-91.

Lee, I. M., E. J. Shiroma, F. Lobelo, P. Puska, S. N. Blair, and P. T. Katzmarzyk. 2012. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 380(9838):219-229.

NASBE (National Association of State Boards of Education). 2012. A school health policy guide: Fit, healthy, and ready to learn. In Chapter D: Policies to promote physical activity and physical education, 2nd ed., edited by J. F. Bogden, M. Brizius, and E. M. Walker. Arlington, VA: NASBE.

Pate, R. R., P. S. Freedson, J. F. Sallis, W. C. Taylor, J. Sirard, S. G. Trost, and M. Dowda. 2002. Compliance with physical activity guidelines: Prevalence in a population of children and youth. Annals of Epidemiology 12(5):303-308.

Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee. 2008. Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee report. Washington, DC: HHS.

Ross, C. E., and J. Mirowsky. 1999. Refining the association between education and health: The effects of quantity, credentials, and selectivity. Demography 36(4):445-460.

Samdel, O., and L. Rowling, eds. 2013. The implementation of health promoting schools: Exploring the theories of what, why and how . London and New York: Routledge.

Schwartz, M. B., A. E. Lund, H. M. Grow, E. McDonnell, C. Probart, A. Samuelson, and L. Lytle. 2009. A comprehensive coding system to measure the quality of school wellness policies. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109(7):1256-1262.

Strong, W. B., R. M. Malina, C. J. Blimkie, S. R. Daniels, R. K. Dishman, B. Gutin, A. C. Hergenroeder, A. Must, P. A. Nixon, J. M. Pivarnik, T. Rowland, S. Trost, and F. Trudeau. 2005. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146(6):732-737.

Task Force on Community Preventive Services. 2005. Physical activity. In The guide to community preventive services: What works to promote health?, edited by S. Zaza, P. A. Briss, and K. W. Harris. Atlanta, GA: Oxford University Press. Pp. 80-113.

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Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

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physical education

Definition of physical education

Did you know.

The Importance (Linguistic and Otherwise) of Physical Education

Physical education has existed since ancient times, but it wasn’t until several hundred years ago that the term itself (abbreviated as phys ed or PE ) came into being. Its earliest known use comes, oddly enough, from a 1748 book titled Critical Reflections on Poetry, Painting, and Music : “Cannot some years prove more favorable than others to the physical education of children. . . ?” A few decades after these words were published, gymnasiums opened across Europe, especially in Germany, where gymnastics associations (or turnvereins ) fostered physical health as well as civic involvement and cultural enrichment. Thanks in part to immigration, these clubs, and European enthusiasm for athletics in general, spread to the U.S. During the 19th century, American educators adopted European methods of teaching physical training, and both the word physical education and the phenomenon it represents became well established in this country.

Examples of physical education in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'physical education.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1748, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near physical education

physical double star

physical environment

Cite this Entry

“Physical education.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/physical%20education. Accessed 20 Jun. 2024.

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What is Physical Education? Meaning, Define, Objective, Importance

The objective of physical education classes is to acquaint understudies with the essential components of exercise that will prompt a sound way of life. Understudies can get exercise and increment their psychomotor capacities by playing an assortment of conventional games like ball and soccer, and by partaking in practice exercises, for example, lifting loads and high impact exercise.

In this article, we have explained what is physical education, its history, objectives, and fact about career opportunities in physical education.

► What is Physical Education?

Physical Education is a learning cycle that spotlights information, perspectives, and practices that are basic for understudies to embrace a way of life of wellbeing and wellness.

Through these cycles, understudies figure out how to accomplish day-by-day actual work and customized degrees of wellness, foster actual abilities, and accomplish information for carrying on with a sound life.

Probably the best open door to impact the country’s well-being and increment active work is to turn into an actual teacher.

Educators can emphatically affect both the quality and amount of an understudy’s life as they are shown the essential abilities that are expected to take on an existence of well-being and wellness.

◉ Physical Education Meaning

• Physical education is a process that uses physical activity as a means to help people acquire skills, fitness, knowledge, and attitudes that contribute to their optimal development and well-being.
• Physical education is a short-term statement of specific outcomes that build cumulatively to reach a goal.
• Physical Education contributes to the development of the whole person.

◉ Definition of Physical Education

“Physical education is an education of and through human movement where many of educational objectives are achieved by means of big muscle activities involving sports, games, gymnastic, dance and exercise.”

“Physical education is an integral part of the total education learning process and has as its aims the development of physically, mentally, socially and emotionally fit citizens, through the medium of physical activities that have been selected and planned to achieve specific outcomes.”

Physical education is the sum of those experiences which come to the individual through movements. – Oberteuffer

Physical education is the sum of man’s physical activities selected as to kind and conducted as to outcomes. – J.F. Williams & C.L. Brownell

Physical education is that phase of the whole field of education that deals with big muscle activities – J.B. Nash

Physical education is the sum of changes in the individual caused by experiences centering on motor activity. – Cassidy

Physical education is education. It is the education through physical activities for the development of the total personality of the child to its fullness and perfection in body, mind, and spirit. – (Central Advisory Board of Physical Education and Recreation, India)

► History of Physical Education

The historical backdrop of Physical education traces back to antiquated Greece, where contest and power were natural. During this time, physical education ended up being significant because it was a need in preparing both Greek warriors and competitors.

For kids, Physical education would start when they were around seven years of age, with the objective being to ultimately have them be well-gifted in exercises like boxing, and chariot races, from there, the sky is the limit.

For this to occur, they expected to comprehend their body and what went into active work, hence body and mind health education assumed an enormous part in the movement of the Greek society.

By the mid-nineteenth century, physical education would be advanced in the United States. The thinking was like that of what the Greeks were involved in, which was to both teach and train troopers for the inevitable fight.

Notwithstanding, throughout the natural process of everything working out, actual instruction would form into something considerably more amazing.

Schools the nation over would start to treat wellbeing-related themes more seriously, both on the jungle gym and in the homeroom, and courses designated toward actual improvement would be offered more consideration.

Universities would follow after accordingly also, and schools all around the United States would ultimately offer an assortment of courses that would assist with developing the actual capacity, give a genuine comprehension of the human body, and increment certainty in America’s childhood.

Initially, actual instruction programs in the United States saw young ladies generally associated with vaulting, while the young men would participate in harsher exercises.

Nonetheless, over the long haul, both male and female people would become instructed on components like body piece, adaptability, nourishment, and perseverance.

► Objectives of Physical Education

Following are the main objectives of physical education:

• Physical development
• Mental development
• Social development
• Neuro Muscular Co-ordination
• Emotional development
• Improvement of Health

✔ 1. Physical development

Development of organ frameworks like the Circulatory framework, sensory system, strong framework, stomach-related framework, and so on.

✔ 2. Mental development

Physical exercises require readiness of the brain, profound focus, and determined development. This goal is connected with the psychological advancement of a person.

✔ 3. Social development

This goal is connected 1o the advancement of social attributes, which are fundamental for better change throughout everyday life. It is a superior hotspot for accomplishing the characteristics. Co-activity, fair play sportsmanship, 1olerance, and compassion.

✔ 4. Neuro Muscular Co-ordination

This goal is focused on a superior connection between the sensory system. Instruction gives plentiful open doors to actual neuromuscular coordination.

✔ 5. Emotional development

The enthusiastic improvement of an individual is likewise one of the significant targets of actual schooling. Each individual has different kinds of feelings viz. Joy, trust envy, contempt misery, dread, sorrow, outrage, wonder, desire, forlornness, and so forth.

✔ 6. Improvement of Health

This creates solid related propensities through wellbeing instruction. This likewise gives schooling about the counteraction of transferable illnesses.

► Importance of Physical Education

• Support sportsmanship in all parts of rivalry.
• Broaden every understudy’s dining experience and satisfaction.
• Make energy for dynamic amusement and game.
• Help understudies in arriving at their actual potential in an assortment of wearing conditions.
• Actual schooling is helpful for both the bodies and psyches of understudies.
• By being more dynamic, understudies will likewise benefit by having the option to more readily keep away from injury, they will have more certainty, and they can see work on psychological wellness.
• It’s vital to teach understudies the advantages of the jungle gym and in-school active work and educate them on issues connected with the human body and other wellbeing-related issues to provide them with a superior comprehension of how their body functions.

► Types of Physical Education

Physical education is classified into many activities including mental and physical exercises. Physical activity simply means the movement of the body that uses energy.

The three main types of physical activities are as follows;

• Muscle & Bone strengthening

◉ 1. Aerobic activities : Benefits your heart and lungs Running Walking Swimming Cycling Dancing

◉ 2. Muscle & Bone strengthening : Improve your muscles and bones by Push-ups, curl-ups weight lifts Climbing stairs Digging in the Garden or field

◉ 3. Stretching : Improves your flexibility of joints Yoga Different stretching exercises

► Facts about Physical education as a Career

• Educational Requirement
• Licensure/Certification
• Career Outlook

◉ Educational Requirement

Actual instruction educators are expected to have an unhitched male’s or alternately graduate degree in actual training, contingent upon the school locale.

These projects can show you the essential exercises of actual schooling classes and the science behind active work. You’ll likewise have the option to get a lot of commonsense understudy showing experience, which is expected to acquire an education permit.

By and large, graduate degree programs in actual schooling contain more inside and out instruction hypotheses and science parts than four-year college education programs. Classes might incorporate mishap avoidance, kinesiology, and assessment of actual wellness

◉ Licensure/Certification

To work in a government-funded school as an actual training instructor, you should be authorized. Licensure fluctuates by state, however, ordinarily expects you to hold a four-year certification in a field of schooling and complete a particular number of long stretches of directed understudy instructing.

You should likewise breeze through an overall showing accreditation assessment and one in your particular field of study. Educators should likewise finish proceeding with instructions to keep up with their permits, as indicated by the U.S. Agency of Labor Statistics (BLS).

◉ Career Outlook

The BLS predicts just a 4% development in the number of occupations for secondary school, center teachers, and primary teachers from 2019-2029.

Accessible open doors do differ by branch of knowledge and area. More positions might be accessible in country and metropolitan schools than in rural areas.

Also Read : What is Career Planning?

► Conclusion

Youngsters are becoming overweight because of the way that they don’t partake in sports activities or know the significance of physical education.

Since kids are becoming overweight guardians need to have their kids take an interest in physical activities from birth because P. Education will be educated to their kids when they begin going to class.

Educators that show physical education will show understudies how to deal with themselves appropriately.

This is significant because when somebody is taught regard to the significance of their well-being then it will make them carry on with a solid way of life.

So, guardians, educators, and different grown-ups need to stress the importance of Physical Edu. in schools.

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health education and physical education

Related resources for this article.

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Introduction

An individual’s physical and mental well-being is the concern of two similar areas of education: health education and physical education. Both deal with habits of exercise, sleep, rest, and recreation. Since physical well-being is only one aspect of a person’s overall health, physical education is often thought of as a part of health education.

Health education is an activity aimed at the improvement of health-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. It is used in schools to help students make intelligent decisions about health-related issues. There are many ways to teach health in schools. Usually instructors create and facilitate learning experiences that develop the student’s decision-making skills. Above all, teachers provide health information and a concern for factors that influence the quality of life.

Health behavior plays a major part in a person’s overall well-being. Since health-related behaviors are both learned and amenable to change, formal health education usually begins when a child is most flexible—in primary school. This is also when a child is more apt to accept positive health behaviors. It is in these early years that the negative effects of a lifetime of health abuse can be prevented. Many health problems are known to be linked to smoking, poor nutrition, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, and abuse of drugs and alcohol ( see alcohol ; drugs ; exercise ; habit and addiction ; stress ; weight control ).

Basic to health education is the principle of preventive care. Health educators attempt to teach people to be responsible for their own health and health care. They also discuss the benefits of medical technology and research. They often promote behavioral changes and modifications to improve health. ( See also holistic medicine .)

Health education and physical education programs exist throughout the world. In the United States, most health education and physical education programs are managed by governments (federal, state, and local), communities, schools, and organizations.

Government Programs

Many federally sponsored health and health-related programs are offered by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Resources and Services Administration, primarily through its Division of Maternal and Child Health, also has particular interests in the health of school-age children. This governmental body develops elementary school programs on human genetics and on accident and injury prevention.

The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, based in Washington, D.C., promotes physical fitness and sports throughout the United States. The group recommends the Youth Fitness Test, developed by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), as the most effective physical fitness battery for use in public schools.

This test consists of six items: pull-ups or flexed-arm hang, standing long jump, 50-yard dash, shuttle run, sit-ups, and a long endurance run. Based on the results of the test, children 10 to 17 years of age can earn the Presidential Physical Fitness Award.

The Youth Fitness Test received some criticism that despite its usefulness in measuring athletic performance, it was not a valid indicator of health-related fitness. As a result of this concern, AAHPERD developed the Health-Related Physical Fitness Test in 1980. It measures cardiovascular function, body composition, flexibility, and abdominal strength.

The Office on Smoking and Health, originally in the Bureau of Health Education, is now part of the Office of the Assistant for Health. It maintains an inventory of information that is used by schools and often provides them with technical assistance.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration within the Department of Transportation provides schools with educational materials related to the use of alcohol, traffic safety, pedestrian and bicycle safety, and housing-occupancy protection. Its curriculum materials are directed to people of all ages. ( See also health agencies .)

School Programs

There has been some controversy about the differences between physical education and health education in schools in the United States. Some states and local school districts treat these two phases of education as being identical. In recent years, many schools have begun to treat health education and physical education as separate disciplines.

In order to facilitate school health and physical education programs, health education professionals combine and categorize generally accepted health education concepts into easily accessible forms. These forms include pamphlets, books, films, audio tapes, video tapes, and curriculum guides.

Primary and Elementary School

Health and physical education usually begins in primary school. Activities are carefully selected according to the child’s age, needs, sex, and physical condition. Children are encouraged to participate in running, climbing, jumping, swinging, and throwing. Such play activities help children to grow and develop.

Health education curricula are often tailored to the age, intellect, and interest of the students. They may include the following health-related concerns: mental health, body systems and the senses, nutrition, family life, alcohol, drugs and tobacco, safety and first aid, personal health, consumer health, diseases (chronic and communicable), environmental health, aging, and death. Each of these concerns is composed of dozens of topics. For example, personal health encompasses dental care, personal care, exercise, rest, physical fitness, and other topics. The general attitudes within a community may affect the elementary school curriculum. In some communities, for instance, sex education is considered a vital part of health education; in others it is felt that the subject should not be a part of the curriculum ( see sexuality ).

Secondary School and College

At the junior high school level, activities are selected in terms of individual and group needs. Other determining factors are the age and physical condition of the student. Competitive sports are introduced at this level, usually for both boys and girls. General health practices are reinforced in junior high school, and new practices, particularly those associated with group responsibility, are begun.

Physical education programs in high schools and colleges often have four parts: (1) an instructional program for all students; (2) an instructional program in which games or sports have been adapted for special needs; (3) an intramural program; and (4) an interscholastic program. Intramural, or “within the walls,” games involve competitions between teams of the same school. When different schools compete, the contests are called interscholastic (high school) or intercollegiate (college).

Complex team sports, such as football and basketball, are also introduced. The variety of sports activities is increased so that all students are given an equal opportunity for sports participation. Rather than having a program with monotonous exercises aimed at strength or discipline, modern physical education programs are designed to provide students with the opportunity to learn those natural activities that contribute to their personal development. Health and physical education curricula in many secondary schools and colleges reflect the recent concerns about problems associated with alcohol, drug, and tobacco abuse. They also include sex education. Different schools have varying means of providing information about these matters. By the time students enter high school, they have acquired some health knowledge as well as certain health attitudes and practices.

Organizational Programs

Numerous private and public health organizations and community groups have an interest in promoting health. Some may focus on particular diseases, disabilities, or an assortment of health problems. Others take on specific health projects to serve their community. Many of these organizations provide informational material and allocate funds for both health instruction and services. Nonprofit organizations also serve the community by providing health-related information to the general public ( see health agencies ).

Programs with health and physical education activities are also found in community centers, fitness clubs, churches, and many other recreational and social organizations. Youth organizations, such as the YMCA, YWCA, and scouting groups, play a particularly vital role in health education in local communities. Many promote Olympic development programs, Special Olympics programs, aerobics, and exercise ( see youth organizations ).

Many large companies provide health and fitness programs for their employees. These corporate programs have been found to reduce health-care costs and absenteeism. They also improve morale, job-satisfaction ratings, and the general health and attitude of employees. The corporate setting represents a logical link between the work site and the health and fitness of the employee. Many companies have in-house health and fitness facilities, education seminars, and workshops.

The physician has always tried to formulate rules of health based on knowledge and experience. These rules were probably the first attempt at health education. Two such regimens are attributed to the ancient physicians Hippocrates and Galen . Another was produced by the medieval medical school at Salerno, Italy. The health information provided by these programs was based on experience rather than on scientific evidence. In modern times, however, health and physical education is a more exact science and many of its teachings are based not only on scientific fact but also on the knowledge of the motivations behind human actions.

Health Education

In the United States sporadic attempts at teaching hygiene in the schools were made in the middle of the 19th century. The activities were more crisis oriented than preventive since epidemic diseases were the primary concern. By the turn of the century the need for health education was recognized, but improvements came slowly. In 1924 only four states had certification requirements for health education teachers in the secondary schools. Formal health education took the form of instruction in anatomy and physiology. Health was taught purely as a science, and emphasis was placed on cognitive information. As health education evolved, health teachers became more concerned with the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of students’ health as well.

Finally, by the 1930s, the idea of health education was thought of as a distinct, independent science. The first program of graduate training for health was established at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1921. By the 1960s many institutes had embarked on the professional preparation of teachers of health education. The crisis-oriented approach to health education was eventually replaced with the modern preventive health education. In the mid-1980s at least 43 states offered preparation programs for teachers of health education.

The beginning of health education in Great Britain is attributed to Sir Allen Daley, a medical officer of health. Daley saw the usefulness of public talks on health topics and pioneered the field of preventive medicine. He was instrumental in setting up the Central Council for Health Education in England.

Physical Education

The revival of gymnastics in the 18th and 19th centuries marked the beginning of large-scale physical instruction. In 1826 Harvard College established the first college gymnasium in the United States. In 1893 it became the first college to confer an academic degree in physical education. Many colleges issued entrance requirements and selective admission for entering students. The main emphasis was on sports participation. Remedial physical education and aquatics were also offered.

By 1925 city supervisors of physical education were employed to organize programs and assist classroom teachers in many elementary schools. The city could dictate the required number of classroom hours for physical education, usually 150 minutes per week for grades one through six.

By 1930 laws requiring physical education in the public schools had been enacted in 36 states. During World War II, physical education classes often lasted 30 minutes daily and included such activities as games, folk dance, story plays, tumbling, and health instruction. General physical education programs were developed at the college and university level for the general student, and professional programs were designed for students seeking a bachelor’s degree in physical education. Professional physical education at all levels in the educational spectrum has recently undergone major modifications.

In the 1950s there was much concern over the physical fitness of students in the United States, partly because of the results of a comparison between the physical fitness of students in the United States and those in Europe. Students from schools in the eastern United States were given a test, called the Kraus-Weber minimum muscular fitness test, in 1952. About 57 percent of the students failed one or more parts of the test. In Europe only about 8 percent of the students failed. The implications of the test led to the establishment, in 1956, of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness, shortly followed by the creation of the Youth Fitness Test Battery, designed by the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

James M. Eddy

Additional Reading

Anspaugh, D.J., and others. Teaching Today’s Health (Bell and Howell, 1983). Cornacchia, Harold J. and others. Health Education in Elementary Schools, 6th ed. (Mosby, 1983). Creswell, W.H. and Anderson, C.L. School Health Practice, 8th ed. (Mosby, 1984). Greene, W.H. and Simons-Morton, B.G. Introduction to Health Education (Macmillan, 1984).

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Home — Essay Samples — Education — Studying Process — Physical Education

Essays on Physical Education

Prompt examples for physical education essays, the importance of physical education in schools.

Discuss the significance of including physical education as a part of the school curriculum. How does physical education benefit students' overall development?

Physical Education and Health

Explore the relationship between physical education and students' health. How does regular physical activity in schools contribute to the well-being of students?

The Role of Physical Education Teachers

Examine the responsibilities and impact of physical education teachers. How do they help students develop physical skills and a lifelong love for fitness?

Innovations in Physical Education

Discuss innovative approaches and technologies used in modern physical education programs. How have these innovations improved the learning experience?

Physical Education and Academic Performance

Explore the potential links between physical education and academic success. How does regular physical activity impact students' cognitive abilities and classroom performance?

The Role of Team Sports in Physical Education

Analyze the benefits of incorporating team sports into physical education programs. How do team sports promote cooperation, leadership, and physical fitness?

Physical Education for Special Populations

Discuss the importance of adapting physical education programs for students with special needs. How can inclusive physical education benefit all students?

Challenges and Solutions in Physical Education

Examine the challenges faced by physical education programs, such as limited resources or lack of facilities. What solutions can be implemented to overcome these challenges?

Physical Education and Lifelong Fitness

Explore the role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness habits. How can physical education programs instill a love for physical activity beyond the school years?

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Physical Education

Discuss methods for assessing the effectiveness of physical education programs. How can schools measure the impact of these programs on students' health and well-being?

Physical Education in Schools

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The Benefits of Physical Education: Develop Skills & Confidence

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The Importance of Compulsory Physical Education Classes

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Using Videos in Teaching Physical Education

The importance of sports for students, myers v. peel county board of education, the wingate test: peak power output and anaerobic systems in the college-aged population, social, mental, and physical benefits of sports for young adolescents, physical education in school as a tool for motor development, benefits of physical education in school for body development, the importance of physical education: a comprehensive analysis, the impact of physical education on student grades, importance of physical education in schools, ethics, education, and responsible practices in running, running as a conduit for physical and mental well-being, the sequence of cephalocaudal development.

Physical Education is an education which brings improvement in human performance with the help of physical activities.

Physical activities range from simple walking to jogging, running, sprinting, hopping, jumping, climbing, throwing, pushing, pulling, kicking, etc.

Physical education helps students develop physical skills and confidence. It develops fitness and fosters the desire for lifelong participation in physical activity. School curriculum prepares students to become highly proficient in one or more sport and/or fitness activity of their choice.

Relevant topics

• Critical Thinking
• Studying Abroad
• Academic Interests
• Stem Education
• College Experience
• Academic Achievements
• High School
• Middle School
• School Uniform

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

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5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

Key messages.

• Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.
• High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.
• Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.
• Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.
• Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.
• Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.
• Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.
• Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.
• Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.
• The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.” As a school subject, physical education is focused on teaching school-aged children the science and methods of physically active, healthful living ( NASPE, 2012 ). It is an avenue for engaging in developmentally appropriate physical activities designed for children to develop their fitness, gross motor skills, and health ( Sallis et al., 2003 ; Robinson and Goodway, 2009 ; Robinson, 2011 ). This chapter (1) provides a perspective on physical education in the context of schooling; (2) elaborates on the importance of physical education to child development; (3) describes the consensus on the characteristics of quality physical education programs; (4) reviews current national, state, and local education policies that affect the quality of physical education; and (5) examines barriers to quality physical education and solutions for overcoming them.

• PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century ( Hackensmith, 1966 ). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students ( Weston, 1962 ). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913 ; Wood and Cassidy, 1930 ) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood's inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle ( NASPE, 2004 ).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a “comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement” (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009) , who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children's cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children ( NASPE, 2004 ).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students' learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child's ability to use his or her body for self-expression ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself ( Laban, 1980 ) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al., 1984 ). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves—with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004 ). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education ( NASPE, 2004 ; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

Standards for a Physically Educated Person. SOURCE: NASPE, 2004.

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3 ).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop ( Siedentop, 1994 ; Siedentop et al., 2011 ). The goal of the model is to “educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons” (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O'Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in students' developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels ( Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005 ). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model's merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students' understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School ( Corbin et al., 2007 ); Personal Fitness for You ( Stokes and Schultz, 2002 ); Get Active! Get Fit! ( Stokes and Schultz, 2009 ); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good ( Williams, 2005 ); and Foundations of Fitness ( Rainey and Murray, 2005 ). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education ( Chen et al., 2008 ), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools ( Chen et al., 2007 ). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living ( Sun et al., 2012 ). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children's lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1 , can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. Technique: Demonstrate competency in techniques needed to perform a variety of moderate to vigorous physical activities. Technique in developing cardiovascular fitness.

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity ( Greenberg and Stokes, 2007 ).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game—DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)—raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009) , studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players' various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school–age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007) , studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children's overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010) , studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming's utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed ( Baranowski et al., 2008 ). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a “low-intensity” physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education ( Fogel et al., 2010 ). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs—such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)—are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first ( Johnston et al., 2010 ), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study ( Romero, 2012 ), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 ( Welk et al., 2004 ). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985 , 1988 ) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents' behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain ( Erwin and Castelli, 2008 ). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children ( Castelli and Valley, 2007 ). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study ( Hensley and East, 1989 ), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student's current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on “Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement.” Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2 ). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Presidential Youth Fitness Program. The Presidential Youth Fitness Program, launched in September 2012, is a comprehensive program that provides training and resources to schools for assessing, tracking, and recognizing youth fitness. The program promotes (more...)

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students' accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements. NASPE (2007a , p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include “opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment.” If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student's needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3 .

Florida Virtual School's Physical Education Policy. Sections 1001.11(7) and 1003.453(2) of the Florida Statutes require that every school district have a current version of its Physical Education Policy on the district website. This document satisfies (more...)

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012) , online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008 , for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30–40 minutes) or longer (65–90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

• IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3 , there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child ( HHS, 2008 ). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4 ) and children's social and emotional well-being ( HHS, 2008 ; Chapter 3 ). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6 ), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues ( Pate et al., 2011 ). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007) , has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child's daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010) , the National Association of State Boards of Education ( NASBE; 2012 ), and NASPE (2004 , 2010 ) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3 , research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness ( Stodden et al., 2008 , 2009 ). Exercise psychology research also has identified children's perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity ( Sallis et al., 2000 ). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits ( Corbin, 2002 ). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 ( Healthy People 2020, 2010 ) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: “PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation's public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students ” and “PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.” 1

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010) , developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that “one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4 .

National Physical Activity Plan: Strategy 2. The National Physical Activity Plan's Strategy 2 is as follows: Strategy 2: Develop and implement state and school district policies requiring school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical (more...)

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student's comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations—such as the NFL through its Play60 program—have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike's (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda , a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5 ).

Nike's Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda. Universal access: Design programs that are effective for every child, including those who face the most barriers to participating in physical activity. Age appropriate: Physical activities and (more...)

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let's Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) “provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day” and (2) “provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity” ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to 50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had “cut” policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

• CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be balanced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6 ). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) ( Bassett et al., 2013 ). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b , 2009b , c ) (see Box 5-6 ). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

NASPE's Characteristics of a High-Quality Physical Education Program. All students are required to take physical education. Instructional periods total 150 minutes per week (elementary schools) and 225 minutes per week (middle and secondary schools).

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program “fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills” ( SPARK, 2013 ).

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district ( Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ). In one study, researchers found that “the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling in the students toward physical activity” ( McKenzie et al., 1994 , p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition ( McKenzie et al., 1998 ). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests ( Sallis et al., 1997 ). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week ( McKenzie et al., 1997 ; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children's health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students ( Perry et al., 1990 ). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children's behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity ( Luepker et al., 1996 ). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention ( Nader et al., 1999 ).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must possess and display (see Box 5-7 ). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education ( McKenzie et al., 2001 ). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). The role of certified physical education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical ( McKenzie, 2007 ). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6 ). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education ( NASPE, 2012 ). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states ( NASPE, 2012 ), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor's degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development, body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor's teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master's-level) training.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts (more...)

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as “nationally recognized.” The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term “physical education” resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 ( College Board, 2013 ) and 1,945 ( Peterson's, 2013 ). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study ( Kulinna et al., 2010 ), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity– and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals ( McKenzie, 2007 ).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008–2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs that were training future teacher educators ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011a ). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators—36.8 each year on average—89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011b ). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator's profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement ( Ball and Cohen, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1 , which aligns with the research on effective professional development ( Kennedy, 1998 ; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ; Garet et al., 2001 ; Fishman et al., 2003 ; Guskey and Sparks, 2004 ), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

Logic model of the impact of professional development on student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ( Whitehurst, 2002 ), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers' knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9 .

Characteristics of a High-Quality Professional Development Program. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance. It is aligned with and directly related to state (more...)

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers' professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks' (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students' physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students' physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers' instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10 ). According to Learning Forward (2012) :

Standards for Professional Learning. Learning communities: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and (more...)

• When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.
• When educators' knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students' learning needs.
• When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.
• When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.
• Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents ( IOM, 2012a ).

• POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively ( McCullick et al., 2012 ), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11 .

Obstacles to Implementation of Quality Physical Education. Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to (more...)

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101–11), core academic subjects include “English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography.” If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE's State School Health Policy Database ( NASBE, 2012 ; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012) : “At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as ‘codified law’ used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)” (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among “credit,” “Carnegie unit,” and “course” so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student's grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools' responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools “the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles” ( Pate et al., 2006 , p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school's or district's wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year's 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered “nonessential” subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics ( Center on Education Policy, 2008 ). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 , 2008 ) (see Table 5-2 ).

Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001–2002.

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for “nonessential” subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these “nonessential” subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement or academic outcomes ( CDC, 2010 ). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4 ).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006–2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001–2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess, and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time.

Districts with at least one school identified as “in need of improvement” under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

• BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher's control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers' perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5 . The institutional barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4 .

Physical Education Teachers' Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools.

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6 .

Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers' Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential).

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs ( GAO, 2012 ), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools' ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school's ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with disabilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher's planning time. In addition, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTES: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a combination special education and disabilities (SPED)/Spanish-language elementary class. PE = physical education; (more...)

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included wellness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understanding the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4 ). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research ( Trost, 2009 ) cites evidence that “children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children's health through physical education.” The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

• “In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.”
• “Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.”
• “Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems.”
• “There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.”
• “Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.”

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identified a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

• A majority of parents (54–84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects ( CDC, 2010 ).
• Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).
• Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity ( NASPE, 2009a ).
• Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 ( NASPE, 2003 ).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students' physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7 .

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The nature and meaning of physical education

To define physical education, we need to say that it is an educational process that aims to improve human development and performance through physical activity. It tends to take place at school through formal lessons, but it also includes informal activity such as play.

Physical education is a process of learning, the context being mainly physical. The purpose of this process is to develop specific knowledge, skills, and understanding and to promote physical competence.

Different sporting activities can and do contribute to this learning process, and the learning process enables participation in sports. The focus, however, is on the child and his or her development of physical competence rather than the activity.

Physical education has a holistic view within a societal context that identifies the interdependence of personal health with societal health and environmental health.

On an individual level, physical education is an agent for health and wellness that can promote personal responsibility and control for active lifestyles. However, equally as important, physical education focuses students' attention on understanding the problems of the social environment that may inhibit them and others from pursuing active lifestyles.

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Physical education contributes to individual wellness through the innate 'experience of the moment' and is reinforced on a daily basis through the knowledge, skills, and feelings of enhanced self-esteem and wellness that develop over time.

Physical education is an area in which physical activity is valued and integrated into daily living. It is anchored in three fundamental axioms that lead to these guiding principles:

Individual: It recognises that people are active for all sorts of reasons - work, play, challenge and achievement, health and personal development, contemplation and relaxation, creative and cultural expression, and social interaction.

Social: It focuses on the individual, but it also recognises that social norms and values, available resources, influential learners, and other factors affect our choices and opportunities for participation. Our choices, in turn, affect these factors.

Inclusive: It provides essential ways to express who we are as individuals or groups. It is a right of all, regardless of ability, age, gender, race, ethnic background, religion, socio-economic status, or educational achievement.

Importance of

Physical education.

The importance of physical education and physical activity in our society is encouraged by a number of guiding principles entrenched in active living such as:

1. Promotes a way of life in which physical activity is

valued, enjoyed, and integrated into daily life.

2. Promotes the principle of individual choice by responding to learners' individual needs, interests, and circumstances.

3. Provides a unique contribution to lifelong development of all learners, enhancing their physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and spiritual well-being.

4. Facilitates learning processes, which encourage critical thinking, thereby affecting the learners'

personal wellness and the well-being of society.

5. Nurtures individual self-reflection and consciousness, which preserves human rights and the development of supportive and sustainable environments.

Physical education on a daily basis establishes the foundations for active living by providing experiences, which enhance the learner's knowledge, attitudes, and skills towards a wellness lifestyle. Physical education as a medium for active living in a school setting engages the whole person in the following ways:

Physically - through high-level participation in appropriately selected activities.

Mentally - through concentration and intensity while learning new concepts and skills.

Emotionally - through the confidence that comes from enjoying established skills.

Socially - through associating with others.

Spiritually - through satisfaction, contentment, and a sense of inner peace.

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What is Physical Education, Meaning and Definition

What is Physical Education, Meaning, Definition- Physical education is taught to promote health and physical fitness by encouraging learning through movement exploration.

Table of Contents

What is Physical Education Meaning

Physical education (Phys Ed. or P.E.) is a subject that is taught in schools all around the world. It is commonly taught in primary and secondary schools, and it promotes health and physical fitness by encouraging psychomotor learning through play and movement exploration. Football, netball, hockey, rounders, cricket, four square, racing, and a variety of other children’s games are among the activities offered in P.E. Nutrition, healthy behaviours, and individuality of needs are also taught in physical education.

What is Physical Education Definition?

Physical education programs differ from country to country. P.E. class, when taught properly, can have a good impact on students’ health, behavior, and academic performance. The main goals of modern physical education are to provide active role models, individualise duration, intensity, and type of activity, encourage self-reporting and monitoring of exercise, teach skills to maintain a lifetime of fitness and health, and expose children and teens to a wide variety of exercise and healthy activities. P.E. is one of the few options for children to engage in good and healthful activities because it is available to nearly all of them. Aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone-strengthening, and stretching are the four main types of physical activity. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

Define Physical Education Benefits

Children and teenagers can reap a slew of health benefits if they are educated correctly and in a good manner. Reduced metabolic disease risk, improved cardiological fitness, and improved mental health are just a few of the benefits. There is also a link between brain growth and physical activity, according to research. Physical education can also help students achieve academic success. In 2007, researchers discovered a significant increase in English Arts standardised exam results among kids who had 56 hours of physical education in a year compared to those who had 28 hours.

The Use of Technology in Physical Education

Many physical education classrooms use technology to help their students exercise effectively. A simple video recorder is one of the most affordable and often used equipment. Students can use this to record themselves and then review the recordings to see what faults they are doing in activities like throwing or swinging. Students find this more helpful than having someone try to explain what they’re doing wrong and then try to remedy it, according to studies. Educators can also employ technology like pedometers and heart rate monitors to help kids set step and heart rate objectives. Video projectors and GPS systems are two other technologies that can be employed in a physical education context.

Physical Education: Syllabus

Physical education is a school-based subject that emphasises the development of physical fitness and the capacity to perform and enjoy everyday physical activities. Kids get the skills they need to engage in a variety of sports, including soccer, basketball, and swimming. Physical educators must promote and strengthen growing motor skills, as well as equip children and teenagers with a fundamental skill set that expands their movement repertory, allowing them to participate in a variety of games, sports, and other physical activities throughout their lives. These objectives can be met in a variety of ways. National, state, and municipal criteria often specify which physical education standards must be taught. The subject presented, the credentials required of instructors, and the textbooks and materials that must be utilised are all determined by these criteria.

These methods and curricula are based on pioneers in physical education, such as Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, and Rudolf von Laban, who emphasised on a child’s ability to utilise their body for self-expression in the 1800s. This, together with 1960s techniques (which included the use of the body, spatial awareness, effort, and relationships), gave birth to modern physical education teaching.

What is Physical Education in Hindi?

शारीरिक शिक्षा क्या है? – परिभाषा

शारीरिक शिक्षा (फिजिक्स एड या पीई) एक ऐसा विषय है जो दुनिया भर के स्कूलों में पढ़ाया जाता है। यह आमतौर पर प्राथमिक और माध्यमिक विद्यालयों में पढ़ाया जाता है, और यह खेल और आंदोलन की खोज के माध्यम से साइकोमोटर सीखने को प्रोत्साहित करके स्वास्थ्य और शारीरिक फिटनेस को बढ़ावा देता है। फुटबॉल, नेटबॉल, हॉकी, राउंडर, क्रिकेट, चार वर्ग, रेसिंग, और कई अन्य बच्चों के खेल पीई में दी जाने वाली गतिविधियों में से हैं। शारीरिक शिक्षा में पोषण, स्वस्थ व्यवहार और आवश्यकताओं की वैयक्तिकता भी सिखाई जाती है।

What is Physical Education Essay in Hindi?

शारीरिक शिक्षा कार्यक्रम हर देश में अलग-अलग होते हैं। पी.ई. कक्षा, जब ठीक से पढ़ाया जाता है, छात्रों के स्वास्थ्य, व्यवहार और शैक्षणिक प्रदर्शन पर अच्छा प्रभाव डाल सकता है। आधुनिक शारीरिक शिक्षा के मुख्य लक्ष्य सक्रिय रोल मॉडल प्रदान करना, अवधि, तीव्रता और गतिविधि के प्रकार को अलग करना, व्यायाम की आत्म-रिपोर्टिंग और निगरानी को प्रोत्साहित करना, जीवन भर फिटनेस और स्वास्थ्य बनाए रखने के लिए कौशल सिखाना और बच्चों और किशोरों को उजागर करना है। व्यायाम और स्वस्थ गतिविधियों की एक विस्तृत विविधता। पी.ई. बच्चों के लिए अच्छी और स्वस्थ गतिविधियों में संलग्न होने के कुछ विकल्पों में से एक है क्योंकि यह लगभग सभी के लिए उपलब्ध है। एरोबिक, मांसपेशियों को मजबूत करना, हड्डियों को मजबूत करना और खींचना चार मुख्य प्रकार की शारीरिक गतिविधि हैं। आपके शरीर को सुडौल और स्वस्थ बनाए रखने के लिए हर एक अलग तरीके से काम करता है। स्ट्रेचिंग जोड़ों को लक्षित करता है और लचीलेपन को बढ़ावा देता है, जबकि एरोबिक आपके दिल और फेफड़ों को सबसे ज्यादा फायदा पहुंचाता है।

शारीरिक शिक्षा के लाभ

यदि बच्चों और किशोरों को सही तरीके से और अच्छी तरह से शिक्षित किया जाए तो वे कई स्वास्थ्य लाभ प्राप्त कर सकते हैं। चयापचय रोग के जोखिम में कमी, कार्डियोलॉजिकल फिटनेस में सुधार और मानसिक स्वास्थ्य में सुधार कुछ ही लाभ हैं। शोध के अनुसार, मस्तिष्क के विकास और शारीरिक गतिविधि के बीच एक कड़ी भी है। शारीरिक शिक्षा भी छात्रों को अकादमिक सफलता प्राप्त करने में मदद कर सकती है। 2007 में, शोधकर्ताओं ने उन बच्चों के बीच अंग्रेजी कला मानकीकृत परीक्षा परिणामों में उल्लेखनीय वृद्धि की खोज की, जिनके पास 28 घंटे की तुलना में एक वर्ष में 56 घंटे की शारीरिक शिक्षा थी।

शारीरिक शिक्षा में प्रौद्योगिकी का उपयोग

कई शारीरिक शिक्षा कक्षाएं अपने छात्रों को प्रभावी ढंग से व्यायाम करने में मदद करने के लिए प्रौद्योगिकी का उपयोग करती हैं। एक साधारण वीडियो रिकॉर्डर सबसे किफायती और अक्सर उपयोग किए जाने वाले उपकरणों में से एक है। छात्र इसका उपयोग खुद को रिकॉर्ड करने के लिए कर सकते हैं और फिर रिकॉर्डिंग की समीक्षा करके देख सकते हैं कि वे फेंकने या झूलने जैसी गतिविधियों में क्या दोष कर रहे हैं। अध्ययन के अनुसार, छात्रों को यह समझाने की कोशिश करने से ज्यादा मददगार लगता है कि वे क्या गलत कर रहे हैं और फिर इसे ठीक करने का प्रयास करें। बच्चों को कदम और हृदय गति के उद्देश्यों को निर्धारित करने में मदद करने के लिए शिक्षक पेडोमीटर और हृदय गति मॉनिटर जैसी तकनीक का भी उपयोग कर सकते हैं। वीडियो प्रोजेक्टर और जीपीएस सिस्टम दो अन्य प्रौद्योगिकियां हैं जिन्हें शारीरिक शिक्षा के संदर्भ में नियोजित किया जा सकता है।

शारीरिक शिक्षा: पाठ्यक्रम

शारीरिक शिक्षा एक स्कूल-आधारित विषय है जो शारीरिक फिटनेस के विकास और रोजमर्रा की शारीरिक गतिविधियों को करने और आनंद लेने की क्षमता पर जोर देता है। बच्चों को फ़ुटबॉल, बास्केटबॉल और तैराकी सहित विभिन्न प्रकार के खेलों में शामिल होने के लिए आवश्यक कौशल प्राप्त होते हैं। शारीरिक शिक्षकों को बढ़ते मोटर कौशल को बढ़ावा देना और मजबूत करना चाहिए, साथ ही बच्चों और किशोरों को एक मौलिक कौशल सेट से लैस करना चाहिए जो उनके आंदोलन प्रदर्शनों का विस्तार करता है, जिससे उन्हें अपने पूरे जीवन में विभिन्न प्रकार के खेल, खेल और अन्य शारीरिक गतिविधियों में भाग लेने की अनुमति मिलती है। इन उद्देश्यों को विभिन्न तरीकों से पूरा किया जा सकता है। राष्ट्रीय, राज्य और नगरपालिका मानदंड अक्सर निर्दिष्ट करते हैं कि कौन से शारीरिक शिक्षा मानकों को पढ़ाया जाना चाहिए। प्रस्तुत विषय, प्रशिक्षकों के लिए आवश्यक साख, और पाठ्यपुस्तकों और सामग्रियों का उपयोग किया जाना चाहिए जो सभी इन मानदंडों द्वारा निर्धारित किए जाते हैं।

ये तरीके और पाठ्यक्रम शारीरिक शिक्षा में अग्रदूतों पर आधारित हैं, जैसे कि फ्रेंकोइस डेल्सर्ट, लिसेलॉट डायम और रुडोल्फ वॉन लाबान, जिन्होंने 1800 के दशक में आत्म-अभिव्यक्ति के लिए अपने शरीर का उपयोग करने की एक बच्चे की क्षमता पर जोर दिया था। इसने 1960 के दशक की तकनीकों (जिसमें शरीर का उपयोग, स्थानिक जागरूकता, प्रयास और संबंध शामिल थे) के साथ मिलकर आधुनिक शारीरिक शिक्षा शिक्षण को जन्म दिया।

What is Physical Education PDF?

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What is Physical Education: QNAs

Ques. What are the 4 types of physical education?

Ans. Aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone-strengthening, and stretching are the four main types of physical activity. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

Ques. What is physical education for students?

Ans. Physical education is a school-based subject that emphasises the development of physical fitness and the capacity to perform and enjoy everyday physical activities. Kids get the skills they need to engage in a variety of sports, including soccer, basketball, and swimming.

Ques. What is the aim of physical education?

Ans. The main goals of modern physical education are to provide active role models, individualise duration, intensity, and type of activity, encourage self-reporting and monitoring of exercise, teach skills to maintain a lifetime of fitness and health, and expose children and teens to a wide variety of exercise and healthy activities. P.E. is one of the few options for children to engage in good and healthful activities because it is available to nearly all of them.

Ques. What are 5 benefits of physical activity?

Ans. The following are five advantages of engaging in physical activities: 1. Exercise helps you lose weight. Exercising can help you avoid gaining weight or keep it off once you’ve lost it. 2. Exercise helps to prevent and treat illnesses and diseases. 3. Exercise elevates one’s mood. 4. Exercise gives you more energy. 5. Exercise helps you sleep better.

Ques. What are the types of exercise?

Ans. It’s crucial to obtain all four forms of exercise, according to research: endurance, strength, balance, and flexibility. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

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