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The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Medical Abstract

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In the world of medical research , a well-written abstract is essential. Serving as a concise summary of your entire study, a medical abstract plays a crucial role in both informing and attracting readers. It provides a snapshot of your research, allowing readers to quickly grasp the significance and key findings of your study without having to read the entire paper. To help you master the art of writing a compelling medical abstract, this ultimate guide will provide valuable insights and practical tips.

Understanding the Importance of a Medical Abstract

Before delving into the intricacies of crafting an effective medical abstract, it's essential to understand its significance. A medical abstract acts as a gateway to your research, enticing readers to explore further. It serves as a representation of the quality and relevance of your study, making it crucial to invest time and effort into perfecting this concise summary.

The Role of a Medical Abstract in Research

A medical abstract serves multiple purposes within the realm of research. Firstly, it enables readers to quickly determine whether your study aligns with their area of interest. By reading the abstract, potential readers, such as fellow researchers or medical professionals, can decide if your findings are relevant to their own work or practice. Additionally, abstracts act as a way of archiving and indexing research studies, ensuring that important findings are easily accessible to the wider scientific community.

Moreover, a well-crafted medical abstract can also contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field. When abstracts are published in scientific journals or presented at conferences , they allow researchers to gain insights into the latest developments and build upon existing studies. This exchange of information fosters collaboration and encourages the growth of scientific knowledge, ultimately leading to improved healthcare practices and patient outcomes.

Key Components That Make a Medical Abstract Effective

To make your medical abstract compelling and informative, certain key components need to be included . Firstly, your abstract should clearly state the purpose and objectives of your study. It should also provide a concise overview of your methodology , outlining the key research methods employed. Additionally, your abstract should highlight the most significant findings and conclusions of your research. Lastly, including key implications or potential applications of your research can further enhance the impact of your abstract.

Furthermore, it is important to consider the language and writing style used in your medical abstract. Clarity and precision are paramount, as the abstract should be easily understood by readers from various backgrounds. Avoiding jargon and using plain language can help ensure that your abstract is accessible to a wider audience. Additionally, paying attention to the overall structure and coherence of your abstract can make it more engaging and enjoyable to read.

Preparing to Write Your Medical Abstract

Before diving into the actual writing process, some preparatory work is necessary to ensure a well-structured and coherent medical abstract. This section will guide you through the crucial steps of gathering, organizing, and identifying the key components of your research.

When embarking on the journey of crafting a medical abstract, it is essential to delve into the depths of your research with a discerning eye. The meticulous process of selecting the most pertinent information is akin to a skilled surgeon carefully choosing the precise instruments for a delicate operation. Each piece of data, every conclusion drawn, must be scrutinised for its relevance and impact, ensuring that only the most vital elements are included in the abstract.

Gathering and Organizing Your Research

Start by reviewing your research paper and identifying the most relevant and impactful aspects to include in your abstract. Carefully select the key findings, methods, and conclusions that best encapsulate the essence of your study. It's important to prioritize brevity and clarity during this stage, as your abstract should provide a concise summary rather than a detailed account of your entire research.

As you sift through the wealth of information at your disposal, imagine yourself as an archaeologist meticulously excavating a site to uncover hidden treasures. Each piece of data unearthed is like a precious artefact, waiting to be polished and presented in your abstract for the world to marvel at.

Identifying Your Key Findings and Conclusions

Once you have selected the most significant aspects of your research, focus on identifying your key findings and conclusions. These should be the main takeaways from your study – the results that have the most impact and significance. Clearly articulating these key points in your abstract will help readers understand the value of your research and its potential implications.

Just as a skilled detective pieces together clues to solve a complex case, you must weave a narrative in your abstract that leads the reader on a journey of discovery. Each key finding and conclusion acts as a breadcrumb, guiding the reader through the labyrinth of your research towards a greater understanding of the implications and applications of your work.

Structuring Your Medical Abstract

Now that you have gathered and organized your research, it's time to structure your medical abstract. A well-structured abstract will guide readers through your study in a logical and engaging manner, keeping them interested and informed.

Before delving into the specifics of structuring your medical abstract, it's important to understand the significance of this concise summary. The abstract serves as a snapshot of your entire research paper, providing readers with a quick overview of your study's purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. It acts as a gateway to your work, enticing readers to delve deeper into the full paper for a comprehensive understanding.

The Four Main Sections of a Medical Abstract

A typical medical abstract consists of four main sections: introduction, methods, results, and conclusion. The introduction should provide context for your research, explaining the problem or gap in knowledge that your study aims to address. The methods section outlines the approach and techniques used in your research. The results section presents the key findings of your study, and the conclusion summarizes the main takeaways and potential implications of your research.

Each section of the abstract plays a crucial role in conveying the essence of your research. The introduction sets the stage, drawing readers in by highlighting the relevance and importance of your study. The methods section acts as a roadmap, detailing the steps you took to conduct your research, ensuring transparency and reproducibility. The results section showcases your findings, providing readers with valuable insights into the outcomes of your study. Finally, the conclusion ties everything together, offering a concise summary of your key findings and their broader implications.

Tips for Writing a Concise and Clear Abstract

When crafting your medical abstract, it is crucial to keep it concise and clear. Avoid excessive jargon, acronyms, or technical terms that may confuse or alienate readers. Use plain language that can be easily understood by a wide range of individuals, including those outside your specific field of study. Remember, the goal is to present your research in a way that is accessible and engaging to a broader audience.

Furthermore, consider the tone and style of your abstract. Aim for a balance between professionalism and readability, ensuring that your abstract is informative yet engaging. By striking this balance, you can effectively communicate the significance of your research while maintaining the interest of your readers. Remember, the abstract is your research paper's first impression, so make it count!

Writing the Introduction of Your Medical Abstract

The introduction of a medical abstract sets the stage for your research. It should succinctly explain the background and rationale behind your study, highlighting the importance and relevance of your research question.

When crafting the introduction of your medical abstract, it is crucial to strike a balance between providing enough context for readers to understand the significance of your research while avoiding unnecessary details that may overwhelm or confuse your audience. A well-crafted introduction can captivate the interest of readers and compel them to delve deeper into your study.

Setting the Context for Your Research

Begin your introduction by providing a brief overview of the field or topic area in which your study is situated. This helps readers understand the broader context and significance of your research. Clearly articulate the problem or research gap that your study aims to address, providing a concise rationale for the importance of your research.

Moreover, consider incorporating recent advancements or key findings in the field to demonstrate the evolving nature of the subject matter. This not only showcases your awareness of current research trends but also positions your study within the larger landscape of scholarly work.

Stating Your Research Objectives

Following the contextual information, state your research objectives. These objectives should clearly outline what you aim to achieve through your study and provide a roadmap for readers to understand the direction and purpose of your research. By clearly stating your research objectives, you set clear expectations for what readers can expect to find in the subsequent sections of your abstract.

Furthermore, consider highlighting the potential implications of your research findings on clinical practice, policy development, or future research directions. This foresight not only underscores the relevance of your study but also showcases the practical applications of your research within the medical field.

Detailing Your Methods and Results

The methods and results sections of your medical abstract provide readers with insight into your research design, data collection, and analysis. These sections should be clear, concise, and informative, allowing readers to understand the scope and integrity of your study.

Describing Your Research Methods

In the methods section, provide a concise overview of the design, participants, and procedures employed in your research. Clearly explain the steps taken to collect and analyze data, ensuring that readers understand the rigor and validity of your study. Be sure to mention any ethical considerations or limitations that may be relevant to your research.

For instance, if your study involved human participants, it is essential to outline the informed consent process and any measures taken to protect their privacy and confidentiality. Additionally, if your research involved animal subjects, it is crucial to mention the ethical approval obtained from the relevant regulatory bodies.

Furthermore, detailing the sample size and characteristics of your participants can provide valuable context to your study. This information allows readers to assess the generalizability of your findings and understand any potential biases that may have influenced the results.

Presenting Your Results Accurately

In the results section, present the key findings of your study. Avoid going into excessive detail, focusing instead on the most significant and impactful outcomes. Utilize clear and concise language to describe your results, ensuring that readers can easily interpret and understand the implications of your findings. Visual aids such as graphs, tables, or charts can be included if they enhance the clarity and comprehensibility of your results.

Moreover, it is important to discuss any unexpected or contradictory results that may have emerged during your research. This demonstrates your scientific integrity and allows readers to gain a more nuanced understanding of your study's outcomes.

Additionally, consider providing a brief discussion of the limitations of your study. This can include factors such as sample size, potential confounding variables, or any methodological constraints that may have influenced the results. Acknowledging these limitations showcases your awareness of the study's boundaries and encourages future researchers to build upon your work.

By following this ultimate guide, you will be well-equipped to confidently write a compelling and informative medical abstract. Remember to prioritize clarity, brevity, and accessibility while showcasing the significance and value of your research. Mastering the art of writing a medical abstract will not only increase the visibility and impact of your work but also contribute to the advancement of medical knowledge.

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How to Write a Medical Abstract for Publication

Preparing Your Study, Review, or Article for Publication in Medical Journals

The majority of social, behavioral, biological, and clinical journals follow the conventional structured abstract form with the following four major headings (or variations of these headings):

OBJECTIVE   (Purpose; Aim; Goal) : Tells reader the purpose of your research and the questions it intends to answer

METHODS   (Setting; Study Design; Participants) : Explains the methods and process so that other researchers can assess, review, and replicate your study.

RESULTS (Findings; Outcomes) : Summarizes the most important findings of your study

CONCLUSIONS   (Discussion; Implications; Further Recommendations) : Summarizes the interpretation and implications of these results and presents recommendations for further research

Sample Health/Medical Abstract

Structured Abstracts Guidelines *

• Total Word Count: ~200-300 words (depending on the journal)
• Content: The abstract should reflect only the contents of the original paper (no cited work)

*   Always follow the formatting guidelines of the journal to which you are submitting your paper.

Useful Terms and Phrases by Abstract Section

Objective:  state your precise research purpose or question (1-2 sentences).

• Begin with “To”: “We aimed to…” or “The objective of this study was to…” using a verb that accurately captures the action of your study.
• Connect the verb to an object phrase to capture the central elements and purpose of the study, hypothesis , or research problem . Include details about the setting, demographics, and the problem or intervention you are investigating.

METHODS : Explain the tools and steps of your research (1-3 sentences)

• Use the past tense if the study has been conducted; use the present tense if the study is in progress.
• Include details about the study design, sample groups and sizes, variables, procedures, outcome measures, controls, and methods of analysis.

  RESULTS : Summarize the data you obtained (3-6 sentences)

• Use the past tense when describing the actions or outcomes of the research.
• Include results that answer the research question and that were derived from the stated methods; examine data by qualitative or quantitative means.
• State whether the research question or hypothesis was proven or disproven.

CONCLUSIONS : Describe the key findings (2-5 sentences)

• Use the present tense to discuss the findings and implications of the study results.
• Explain the implications of these results for medicine, science, or society.
• Discuss any major limitations of the study and suggest further actions or research that should be undertaken.

Before submitting your abstract to medical journals, be sure to receive proofreading services from Wordvice, including journal manuscript editing and paper proofreading , to enhance your writing impact and fix any remaining errors.

Related Resources

• 40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays  (Oxford Royale Academy)
• 100+ Strong Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing  (Wordvice)
• Essential Academic Writing Words and Phrases  (My English Teacher.eu)
• Academic Vocabulary, Useful Phrases for Academic Writing and Research Paper Writing  (Research Gate)
• How to Compose a Journal Submission Cover Letter  (Wordvice/YouTube)
• How to Write the Best Journal Submission Cover Letter  (Wordvice)

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How to write an abstract that will be accepted

• Related content
• Peer review
• Mary Higgins , fellow in maternal fetal medicine 1 ,
• Maeve Eogan , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 2 ,
• Keelin O’Donoghue , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist, and senior lecturer 3 ,
• Noirin Russell , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 3
• 1 Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
• 2 Rotunda Hospital Dublin, Ireland
• 3 Cork University Maternity Hospital, Ireland
• mairenihuigin{at}gmail.com

Researchers do not always appreciate the importance of producing a good abstract or understand the best way of writing one. Mary Higgins and colleagues share some of the lessons they have learnt as both researchers and reviewers of abstracts

Effective abstracts reflect the time, work, and importance of the scientific research performed in the course of a study. A last minute approach and poor writing may not reflect the good quality of a study.

Between the four of us we have written over 150 published papers, as well as having reviewed numerous abstracts for national and international meetings. Nevertheless, we have all had abstracts rejected, and this experience has emphasised a number of teaching points that could help maximise the impact of abstracts and success on the world, or other, stage.

An abstract is the first glimpse an audience has of a study, and it is the ticket to having research accepted for presentation to a wider audience. For a study to receive the respect it deserves, the abstract should be as well written as possible. In practice, this means taking time to write the abstract, keeping it simple, reading the submission guidelines, checking the text, and showing the abstract to colleagues.

It is important to take the necessary time to write the abstract. Several months or years have been spent on this groundbreaking research, so take the time to show this. Five minutes before the call for abstracts closes is not the time to start putting it together.

Keep it simple, and think about the message that needs to be communicated. Some abstracts churn out lots of unrelated results and then have a conclusion that does not relate to the results, and this is just confusing. Plan what points need to be made, and then think about them a little more.

Read the submission guidelines and keep to the instructions provided in the call for abstracts. Don’t submit an unstructured abstract if the guidance has asked for a structured one. Comply with the word or letter count, and do not go over this.

An abstract comprises five parts of equal importance: the title, introduction and aims, methods, results, and conclusion. Allow enough time to write each part well.

The title should go straight to the point of the study. Make the study sound interesting so that it catches people’s attention. The introduction should include a brief background to the research and describe its aims. For every aim presented there needs to be a corresponding result in the results section. There is no need to go into detail in terms of the background to the study, as those who are reviewing the abstract will have some knowledge of the subject. The methods section can be kept simple—it is acceptable to write “retrospective case-control study” or “randomised controlled trial.”

The results section should be concrete and related to the aims. It is distracting and irritating to read results that have no apparent relation to the professed aims of the study. If something is important, highlight it or put it in italics to make it stand out. Include the number of participants, and ensure recognition is given if 10 000 charts have been reviewed. Equally, a percentage without a baseline number is not meaningful.

In the conclusion, state succinctly what can be drawn from the results, but don’t oversell this. Words like “possibly” and “may” can be useful in this part of the abstract but show that some thought has been put into what the results may mean. This is what divides the good from the not so good. Many people are capable of doing research, but the logical formation of a hypothesis and the argument of its proof are what make a real researcher.

Once you have written the abstract, check the spelling and grammar. Poor spelling or grammar can give the impression that the research is also poor. Show the abstract to the supervisor or principal investigator of the study, as this person’s name will go on the abstract as well. Then show the abstract to someone who knows nothing about the particular area of research but who knows something about the subject. Someone detached from the study might point out the one thing that needs to be said but that has been forgotten.

Then let it go; abstracts are not life and death scenarios. Sometimes an abstract will not be accepted no matter how wonderful it is. Perhaps there is a theme to the meeting, into which the research does not fit. Reviewers may also be looking for particular things. For one conference, we limited the number of case reports so that only about 10% were accepted. It may be that your research is in a popular or topical area and not all abstracts in that area can be chosen. On occasions, politics play a part, and individual researchers have little control over that.

Finally, remember that sometimes even the best reviewer may not appreciate the subtleties of your research and another audience may be more appreciative.

Competing interests: We have read and understood the BMJ Group policy on declaration of interests and have no relevant interests to declare.

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How to Write a Medical Abstract

Last Updated: May 15, 2019 References

This article was co-authored by Chris M. Matsko, MD . Dr. Chris M. Matsko is a retired physician based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. With over 25 years of medical research experience, Dr. Matsko was awarded the Pittsburgh Cornell University Leadership Award for Excellence. He holds a BS in Nutritional Science from Cornell University and an MD from the Temple University School of Medicine in 2007. Dr. Matsko earned a Research Writing Certification from the American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) in 2016 and a Medical Writing & Editing Certification from the University of Chicago in 2017. There are 12 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 65,208 times.

The purpose of a medical abstract is to provide a concise and useful summary of a longer medical article or study. A good abstract informs readers briefly of the research and ideas that are presented in the full article. Before writing the abstract, be sure you understand the research you're summarizing. Describe the background to your research, your expectations or hypotheses, the methods you used, and the outcomes of your medical investigation.

Getting Ready to Write the Abstract

• If you have co-authors on the publication, have them look over a draft of the abstract before submitting it.
• If you don’t have co-authors, submit a draft of the abstract to a peer in your field of research, or a trusted mentor knowledgeable about the abstract submission and publication process.

Providing Essential Information

• For instance, you might write, “Livingston (2009) has demonstrated the efficacy of nucleotide reparation in E. Coli UBPs.”

• For instance, you might write, “Our hypothesis was that medication X was superior in treating epilepsy than medication Y.”
• Some medical abstracts do not require a background section. In an abstract without a background section, you will start the body of your abstract with information on the goals and expectations of your research. [7] X Research source

• Setting — Where did you conduct your research?
• Sample size —How many individuals participated in the research? How were they selected? This includes animal populations as well.
• Design — How were measurements and statistics recorded?
• Variables — What were the specific variables you looked at? How did you account for them?
• Interventions — How did you intervene to manipulate the variables?

• Do not provide interpretation of your results in this section. Interpretation and analysis should be saved for the conclusion.
• Do not include tables or charts in your abstract. These should be included in the main body of the paper.

Putting the Finishing Touches on Your Abstract

• For instance, “New Corticosteroids Provide Asthma Relief” is a poor abstract title.
• “Corticosteroid Treatment in Asthmatic Patients,” on the other hand, is a good title.
• Don’t use puns or jokes in your title. This may make your work seem trivial and unimportant.

• Some abstracts expect you to list all authors in alphabetical order according to their last names.
• Other publications might expect you to list authors of increasing seniority toward the end of the author list. In this arrangement, the study’s lead researcher or team mentor would be listed last.
• You might also need to list each author’s credentials. For instance, you might need to write “John Smith MD”
• The title and authors should be listed at the top of the abstract, and before the main information of the abstract.

• Additionally, remember to proofread your work. Spelling errors, typos and grammatical mistakes will discredit your hard work and research.
• It might help to read the abstract out loud to yourself to make sure it sounds right before submitting it. Ask a colleague to read over it for you to ensure it is easy to understand and makes sense.
• After you’ve edited the abstract, submit it to the appropriate journal, professional society, or conference committee for approval.

Expert Q&A

• Don’t reword a previous abstract to describe similar research. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://rc.rcjournal.com/content/49/10/1206.full.pdf
• ↑ https://www.academia.edu/3697187/Good_Abstract_Writing_for_a_Medical_Science_Journal_Article_The_Tits_and_Bits
• ↑ https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/policy/structured_abstracts.html
• ↑ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportform.html#form
• ↑ https://www.acponline.org/membership/residents/competitions-awards/acp-national-abstract-competition/guide-to-preparing-for-the-abstract-competition/writing-a-research-abstract

About This Article

Medical Disclaimer

The content of this article is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, examination, diagnosis, or treatment. You should always contact your doctor or other qualified healthcare professional before starting, changing, or stopping any kind of health treatment.

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The best way to start a medical abstract is to begin with one or two sentences of background about why you did the research. For example, you might write, “Livingston (2009) has demonstrated the efficacy of nucleotide reparation in E. Coli UBPs”. Once you’ve stated the background and inspiration for your research, you should state your own goals and hypotheses while emphasizing your objectivity as a researcher. In the next section of your abstract, provide an outline of your methods that answers the question, “How did you investigate the topic or problem?”. Though you should avoid over-describing your methods, make sure you include things like the research setting, sample size, design, variables, and interventions you made to manipulate the variables. Finally, you’ll want to take 6 to 8 sentences to briefly summarize your findings using specific numbers and statistics. For more help from our Medical co-author, like how to title your abstract, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Writing an Abstract

Writing an abstract is a skill like any other.  

Abstracts are short summaries of your research and, although the format may vary slightly depending on where they are being submitted, there are standard guidelines about what should be in an abstract. The purpose of an abstract is to provide readers a brief summary of your study so that they may determine if they want to learn more about the research. An abstract should use proper terminology but should also be geared toward a reader who may have only a cursory familiarity with the research area.

General Guidelines

• Omit all researcher names and affiliations from the body of the abstract.
• Avoid the use of new technical words, laboratory slang, words not defined in dictionaries or abbreviations and terminology not consistent with internationally accepted guidelines. If you do use abbreviations define them in body of the abstract the first time they are used .
• Eliminate jargon. Showing off your technical vocabulary will not demonstrate your research’s value. If you can’t avoid using a technical term, add a nontechnical synonym to help nonspecialists infer the term’s meaning.
• Brevity is the goal. Most abstracts have a word limit of around 250 to 300 words. Omit needless words, redundant modifiers, over-the-top diction, and excessive detail.
• An abstract should have the same structure a research article: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Conclusions . Depending on the required format you may be required to use these or similar headings within the body of the abstract but even if you do not use these headings the structure of the abstract should implicitly follow this format.
• Eliminate expressions such as “It is my opinion that,” “I have concluded,” “The main point supporting my view concerns” or “Certainly, there is little doubt as to.” Focus readers’ attention solely the findings, not on opinion.
• Examine other abstracts for examples of successful abstracts .  If you are submitting to a journal, look at the abstracts for papers recently published in that journal. If you are submitting to a conference, look at abstracts printed in past years’ meeting programs.
• Before submitting your abstract have a colleague who has limited knowledge of your research area read and comment on it to determine how understandable it is. Remember you will often know more about your research area than those who review your work so having someone with a similar knowledge base to the potential reviewers will help determine how well you have written the abstract.
• Remember an abstract is you telling a short story about your research.

Things To Ask Yourself When You Are Writing An Abstract

• Have I stated why my research is important to a larger problem?
• Have I stated the specific aims of my research project?
• Have I indicated the most important hypothesis(es)?
• Have I identified the type of study I conducted (experimental, clinical trial, non-experimental, survey, case study, etc).
• Have I clearly and precisely identified the sample being studied? Be specific. For example if you are studying veterans over 60 who are cardiology patients, state that rather than just stating cardiology patients. 
• Have I clearly identified the variables being examined? State explicitly what your independent and dependent variables are. Use general terms when possible and more specific terms when necessary.  
• Have I stated the most important finding clearly and in a way that someone without deep technical knowledge of the field can understand? 
• Do the results reflect what I actually did in terms of statistical analyses?   Be prudent in reporting statistical findings. You may provide statistics but don’t rely on them to completely tell the story of the findings. You also need to communicate the inferences from your statistical findings. If you conducted correlations or regressions do you describe the relationships between variables? If you examined naturally occurring groups or treatment groups (t-test, ANOVA), do you frame the results around how the groups were different on your dependent measure(s)?
• Are the findings reported directly related the hypothesis stated earlier? Are the findings consisted or inconsistent with prediction of the hypothesis?
• Are my conclusions simply a restating of the results?   Conclusions should not just be a restating of the results. The conclusions should be about the implications of the results and should refer back to the purpose of the study stated earlier in the abstract. 

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An abstract usually has the following sections.

Conference and journal guidelines will tell you the word limit and what format to use. Some will ask you to break the information into sections (as seen below), others will ask you to put the information together in a single paragraph.

• Background / Objective : What is public health problem you are addressing? What is its scope? What is the purpose of your article / presentation?
• Methods : What was your study design? How did you collect data? How did you analyze your data?
• Results : What did you find that is most relevant to the objective stated above?
• Discussion / Implications / Recommendations : What is the significance of your research? What are the implications for addressing the public health challenge? What next steps do you recommend?

Beard, J. (2022, April 13). Writing public health abstracts . Public Health Writing Program. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://blogs.bu.edu/jenbeard/2022/04/13/writing-public-health-abstracts/

• SPH Blog: Writing Public Health Abstracts

Useful Resources

Suhasini Nagda. 2013. How to Write Scientific Abstracts . Journal of Indian Prosthdontic Society. 13(3): 382-383

Karen McKee. 2022. How to Write a Scientific Abstract for Your Research Article . Wiley Network.

Purdue Owl. Writing Scientific Abstracts .

For more information about Abstract Writing, head over to SPH's Public Health Writing blog , where you will find countless wonderful articles written by SPH Professor and Director of the Public Health Writing Program, Jen Beard.

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Writing a Research Abstract

The written abstract is used in making selections for presentations at scientific meetings. Writing a good abstract is a formidable undertaking and many novice researchers wonder how it is possible to condense months of work into 300 to 400 words. Nevertheless, creating a well-written abstract is a skill that can be learned and mastering the skill will increase the probability that your research will be selected for presentation.

The first rule of writing abstracts is to know the rules. Organizers of scientific meetings set explicit limits on the length abstracts.

Authors must pay close attention to the published details of the meeting including deadlines and suggested format. Since reviewers have many abstracts to read and rank; those that don't conform to the stated rules are simply discarded.

The scientific abstract is usually divided into five unique sections: Title and Author Information, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. The following paragraphs summarize what is expected in each of these sections.

Title and Author Information: The title should summarize the abstract and convince the reviewers that the topic is important, relevant, and innovative. To create a winning title, write out 6 to 10 key words found in the abstract and string them into various sentences. Once you have a sentence that adequately conveys the meaning of the work, try to condense the title yet still convey the essential message. Some organizations require a special format for the title, such as all uppercase letters, all bolded, or in italics. Be sure to check the instructions.

Following the title, the names of all authors and their institutional affiliations are listed. It is assumed the first author listed will make the oral presentation. Determine if the first author needs to meet any eligibility requirements to make the presentation. For example, the first author may need to be a member of the professional society sponsoring the research meeting. This information is always included with the abstract instructions.

Introduction: This usually consists of several sentences outlining the question addressed by the research. Make the first sentence of the introduction as interesting and dramatic as possible. For example, "100,000 people each year die of…" is more interesting than "An important cause of mortality is…" If space permits, provide a concise review of what is known about the problem addressed by the research, what remains unknown, and how your research project fills the knowledge gaps. The final sentence of the introduction describes the purpose of the study or the study's a priori hypothesis.

Methods: This is the most difficult section of the abstract to write. It must be scaled down sufficiently to allow the entire abstract to fit into the box, but at the same time it must be detailed enough to judge the validity of the work. For most clinical research abstracts, the following areas are specifically mentioned: research design; research setting; number of patients enrolled in the study and how they were selected; a description of the intervention (if appropriate); and a listing of the outcome variables and how they were measured. Finally, the statistical methods used to analyze the data are described.

Results: This section begins with a description of the subjects that were included and excluded from the study. For those excluded, provide the reason for their exclusion. Next, list the frequencies of the most important outcome variables. If possible, present comparisons of the outcome variables between various subgroups within the study (treated vs. untreated, young vs. old, male vs. female, and so forth). This type of data can be efficiently presented in a table, which is an excellent use of space. But before doing this, check the rules to see if tables can be used in the abstract. Numerical results should include standard deviations or 95% confidence limits and the level of statistical significance. If the results are not statistically significant, present the power of your study (beta-error rate) to detect a difference.

Conclusion: State concisely what can be concluded and its implications. The conclusions must be supported by the data presented in the abstract; never present unsubstantiated personal opinion. If there is room, address the generalizability of the results to populations other than that studied and the weaknesses of the study.

Research literature has a special language that concisely and precisely communicates meaning to other researches. Abstracts should contain this special language and be used appropriately. See The Glossary of commonly used research terms.

Avoid the use of medical jargon and excessive reliance on abbreviations. Limit abbreviations to no more than three and favor commonly used abbreviations. Always spell out the abbreviations the first time they are mentioned unless they are commonly recognized (e.g., CBC).

Although short in length, a good abstract typically takes several days to write. Take this into account when budgeting your time. Seek the help of an experienced mentor. Share the abstract with your mentor and make revisions based upon the feedback. Allow others to read your draft for clarity and to check for spelling and grammatical mistakes. Reading the abstract orally is an excellent way to catch grammatical errors and word omissions. Use the Scientific Abstract Checklist  to assist your completion of the task. Finally, an example of an abstract  previously accepted for presentation at the ACP Resident Research Competition is attached for your review.

How to Write an Abstract?

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
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An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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Writing the Abstract

Abstract and Keywords

Additional Commentaries

1 what is an abstract.

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Preparing a manuscript for submission to a medical journal. Available on http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscript-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html . Accessed 10 May 2020.

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Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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Writing good abstracts

Affiliation.

• 1 Stroke Research Program, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, Arizona 85013, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 17199082
• DOI: 10.1159/000098324

Introduction: Writing an abstract means to extract and summarize (AB - absolutely, STR - straightforward, ACT - actual data presentation and interpretation). Thousands of abstracts are submitted to stroke conferences each year. The following suggestions may improve the chances of your work being selected for presentation, and to communicate results in the most efficient and unambiguous way. TITLE AND STRUCTURE: Make the title dynamic and informative, rather than descriptive. Structure the abstract following the IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion) principle for your future original paper where background would become Introduction and conclusions would enter Discussion. Select the appropriate category for submission carefully. This determines which experts grade the abstract and the session where your competitors represent their work. If selected appropriately, your abstract is more likely to be graded by peers with similar interests and familiarity with your work or field. Methods should describe the study design and tools of data acquisition shortly, not data.

Results: Provide data that answer the research question. Describe most important data with numbers and statistics. Make your point with data, not speculations and opinions. Abbreviations should be avoided and only be used after they have been spelled out or defined. Common mistakes include failure to state the hypothesis, rationale for the study, sample size and conclusions. Highlight the novelty of your work by carefully chosen straightforward wording.

Conclusions: Conclusions have to be based on the present study findings. Make sure your abstract is clear, concise and follows all rules. Show your draft to colleagues for critique, and if you are not a native English speaker show it to a person who can improve/correct your text. Remember that accepted abstracts of completed original research should be followed by published original papers - if this is not intended or fails, it may indicate an impaired ability to succeed in scientific writing and an academic career.

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How to Write an Abstract - Steps with Examples

Writing reports, papers, and assignments is a significant part of college life, and it often involves complex writing and analysis. One of the most challenging aspects can be crafting an effective abstract. After completing your report, summarizing it concisely can seem daunting. In this guide, I’ll walk you through how to write an abstract for paper that clearly and effectively summarizes your work, making it easier for your readers to grasp the main points.

What to Include & How to Structure Your Abstract?

A.what to include.

An abstract serves as a concise summary of a research paper, providing readers with a quick overview of its essential aspects. It typically begins by setting the context and significance of the research, outlining the broader field and specific topic under study. Central to the abstract is a clear articulation of the research question or problem that the study addresses, emphasizing its relevance and importance within the discipline. Building upon existing literature, the abstract succinctly summarizes previous research while highlighting gaps or limitations that motivate the current study.

Context or Background: Briefly introduce the general and specific topics of your research.

Central Question or Problem: Clearly state the research question or problem addressed.

Previous Research: Summarize what is already known and highlight gaps or limitations.

Methods: Outline the research or analytical methods used.

Findings: Present the main findings or arguments.

Significance: Explain the implications or significance of your findings.

B.How to Structure

Introduction:

Begin with a sentence that sets the context and importance of your research topic.

Briefly mention the specific aspect of the topic that your paper focuses on.

Provide a concise summary of the methods used in your study.

Mention any unique approaches or innovations in your methodology.

Summarize the most significant findings of your research.

Highlight any unexpected results or patterns observed.

Conclusion:

Conclude with the significance of your findings.

Discuss how your research contributes to the field and suggest areas for future study.

C.Things to Avoid

Citing References: Avoid including citations or detailed literature reviews.

Detailed Explanations: Keep descriptions of methods and data concise.

Jargon and Technical Language: Use clear and accessible language to ensure understanding

Types of Abstract

There are two primary types of abstracts: descriptive and informative.

1.Descriptive Abstract:

A descriptive abstract provides a brief overview of the purpose and scope of the research without delving into specific details of findings or conclusions. It aims to give readers a snapshot of what the paper is about.

An example of a descriptive abstract would be where in a study analyzing economic homogamy among spouses, a descriptive abstract might introduce the topic and outline the general findings about increasing economic resemblance between partners without specifying the detailed methods or specific results.

2.Informative Abstract:

An informative abstract offers a comprehensive summary of the entire research paper, including the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. It provides readers with a clear understanding of the study's objectives and outcomes.

For instance, in a research paper on reprogramming fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells, an informative abstract would detail the methods used (such as specific gene factors and signaling pathways), summarize the main findings (including the types of cells generated and their potential applications), and discuss the broader implications for cardiac regenerative therapy.

Both types of abstracts serve distinct purposes: descriptive abstracts give a broad overview suitable for quickly understanding the topic, while informative abstracts provide detailed insights into the research, making them ideal for readers seeking in-depth knowledge without reading the full paper.

How to Write an Abstract for paper in 4 Steps [With Examples]

Now that we know an abstract is simply a concise summary of our entire research, the next step is to learn how to write an abstract for a research paper. Remember, the structure of an abstract needs to be followed strictly, and it should be within 300 words to ensure it is impactful and fulfills its purpose. The structure includes:

Problem Statement (1-2 sentences)

Methodology (1-2 sentences)

Results (2-3 sentences)

Significance (1-2 sentences)

With this structure in mind, I will be writing an abstract on the topic 'Ethical Implications of Facial Recognition Technology in Public Surveillance'. To assist me, I will be using WPS Writer as my writing tool because it not only provides me with the necessary editing tools for writing my research paper but also utilizes WPS AI to save time and enhance the meaning of my abstract.

Problem Statement

So first of all, in an abstract, we have the Problem Statement. A problem statement, or research gap, serves as a concise description of the issue or challenge addressed in the research. Students and researchers often end up writing line after line when discussing the research gap, although just 1-2 lines will suffice.

Let's take a look at the draft I have written for the problem statement on WPS Writer.

To shorten this problem statement effectively while ensuring it describes the issue concisely, I'll use WPS AI for assistance. Here's how:

Step 1: Highlight the problem statement using your mouse.

Step 2: After highlighting the text, you will see a floating menu with quick edit tools. Click on the "WPS AI" icon.

Step 3: Upon clicking the WPS AI icon, a list of WPS AI options will appear. Select "Make Shorter".

Step 4: WPS AI will process the text, and once shortened, review it. If satisfactory, click “Replace”; otherwise, opt for “Rewrite” to refine further.

Step 5: With the problem statement shortened, I'll add a human touch by making final adjustments before moving to the next part of our abstract.

Methodology

Next up, we need to discuss the methods used during our research. This includes outlining the specific techniques, procedures, or approaches employed to gather data and analyze findings, ensuring transparency and replicability in scholarly work.

And now, with the help of WPS AI, I'll be shortening my methodology statement to make it more concise and fit my abstract.

Ensure to review any changes made because WPS AI is a writing assistant designed to help you write better, but reviewing is critical to ensure the end result meets your expectations.

After discussing the methodology, we present the results of our research. This section summarizes the key findings and outcomes obtained through the applied methods, providing a clear picture of what was discovered or achieved.

Similar to other sections, I have created a rough draft of my research findings, which I believe are important to include in my abstract.

Now with the assistance of WPS AI, I can further condense my draft. Remember, results can be a bit longer compared to other sections of our abstract, so I'll aim for 2-3 sentences to maintain relevance.

Significance

Finally, we need to discuss the significance of our research and its contributions to the field. This involves explaining how our findings will impact the topic of research and provide a foundation for future studies.

With my significance statement further shortened using WPS AI, I now have my complete abstract statement totaling over 220 words, providing a brief overview of my entire research.

Once you have completed writing your abstract, the next step is to include keywords—a crucial element in learning how to write an abstract for a project or research paper in APA style. When publishing your paper, it's essential to include these keywords at the end of the abstract.

They should highlight important aspects of your research, aiding readers in finding your paper during literature searches. APA Style guidelines specify the formatting rules for these keywords, ensuring consistency and clarity in scholarly publications.

Place keywords directly below the abstract.

Indent the first line of keywords by 0.5 inches.

Use an italicized heading for "Keywords:"

Separate each keyword with a comma and maintain standard font style for keywords.

Remember, the abstract is written once the entire research paper has been completed, so it is the final step before you submit your research paper for publication or to your college professor.

When inputting keywords, think from a reader's perspective about what they are searching for, and include those search terms as your keywords.

While writing your abstract, remember that your research findings are already completed, so the abstract is always in the present or past simple tense.

Avoid delving deeply into the problem when describing your problem statement.

Use verbs like "investigate, test, analyze, evaluate, calculate" to describe the purpose of your research.

In the results section, highlight the most important findings because sometimes research findings are extensive and it might leave you confused about which ones to include.

Mention any limitations encountered during your research.

Bonus Tips: How to Perfect your Abstract with WPS AI

When crafting your essay with WPS AI, you're setting yourself up for success. WPS AI offers a suite of tools designed to elevate your writing to new heights, ensuring your paper is not only well-written but also perfectly formatted and crystal clear. Whether you're brainstorming ideas or fine-tuning your final draft, WPS AI is your comprehensive writing assistant.

Content Generation and Idea Formation:

WPS AI aids in generating and refining ideas, helping you structure your thoughts cohesively. It provides guidance on developing strong arguments and organizing your essay logically, ensuring your content flows smoothly.

Grammar and Style Correction:

WPS AI acts as a meticulous proofreader, detecting and correcting grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, and stylistic inconsistencies. It ensures your writing adheres to standard grammar rules and enhances readability.

Coherence Enhancement:

Beyond surface-level corrections, WPS AI enhances the coherence of your writing. It identifies areas where transitions between paragraphs or ideas could be smoother, ensuring your paper maintains a clear and logical progression of thought.

Clarity Check:

Clarity is paramount in effective writing. WPS AI evaluates the clarity of your sentences and paragraphs, suggesting improvements to eliminate ambiguity and enhance understanding. It helps refine your tone and ensures your message is conveyed effectively to your audience.

Formatting Assistance:

Formatting can often be a tedious task. WPS AI automates the process, ensuring your paper meets the required formatting guidelines effortlessly. Whether it's APA, MLA, Chicago, or any other style, WPS AI ensures your paper looks polished and professional.

Real-time Feedback and Iterative Improvement:

As you write, WPS AI provides real-time feedback, offering suggestions for improvement as you draft your essay. This iterative process allows you to refine your writing continuously, incorporating feedback on the go.

FAQs about writing an abstract for paper

1. is it necessary for an abstract to adhere to a standard structure.

No, an abstract does not always need to follow a standard structure. While a standard format offers familiarity, focusing on the most compelling aspects of your research is crucial. Here are some key points to keep in mind:

Significant Discoveries: If your research unveils groundbreaking results, prioritizing these can immediately capture attention, even if it diverges slightly from the traditional structure.

Innovative Method: Highlighting a fresh or distinct approach from the outset can captivate readers interested in your research methodology.

2. Does the use of technical jargon in an Abstract enhance the reader's comprehension?

Using too much technical language in an abstract usually doesn't help readers. Here's why it might cause trouble:

Excludes Readers: An excessive use of jargon can create a barrier, potentially alienating readers who could otherwise benefit from your research.

Hides Important Ideas: Sometimes, technical language makes it hard to understand your thoughts clearly. Utilizing clear and everyday language enhances your ability to communicate complex ideas effectively.

When to Incorporate Technical Language:

Clarify Terms: If technical terms are necessary, provide clear explanations upon their initial use.

Maintain Balance: Strive for clarity while demonstrating proficiency in the technical vocabulary of your field.

3. When should I write the Abstract?

Once you've finished your research, write the abstract as the final step. This allows you to concisely summarize your entire thesis, dissertation, or research paper, capturing all its main points and findings.

4. How long should an Abstract be?

Abstract lengths for theses and dissertations typically range between 200 and 300 words. Many universities enforce strict word limits, so it's crucial to check your institution's specific requirements before submitting your abstract.

Ease Your Academic Life With WPS Office

Writing a paper can be a challenging journey, but when you're creating your abstract, you're figuratively and literally wrapping it up. WPS Office is a great companion to have on this journey. From generating ideas to perfecting your final draft, WPS AI equips you with the tools and guidance on how to write an abstract for paper. It ensures that your essay not only meets academic standards but also stands out for its coherence, clarity, and impeccable presentation. Download WPS Office now and make your academic life easier.

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Multiple pathways through which food insecurity may plausibly impact later-life cognitive outcomes and risk of dementia.

The analytical sample size is 7012 individuals, and 18 356 is the person-wave observations.

Estimates were made based on the regression model fit in the primary analysis. The analytical sample size is 7012 individuals, and 18 356 is the person-wave observations.

eTable 1. Six-Item USDA Food Security Module, Assessed in HRS Respondents in 2013

eTable 2. Association of Food Insecurity With Dementia Risk in Primary Analytic Sample

eTable 3. Association of Food Insecurity With Memory Levels and Age-Related Decline in Primary Analytic Sample

eTable 4. Association of Food Insecurity With Dementia Risk Under Different Exposure Definitions

eTable 5. Association of Food Insecurity With Memory Score Among Respondents Under Different Exposure Definitions

eTable 6. Association of Food Insecurity With Dementia Risk Under Different Definitions of the Dementia Risk Outcome

eTable 7. Association of Food Insecurity With Word Recall in Primary Analytic Sample

eTable 8. Association of Food Insecurity With Cognitive Outcomes in Primary Analytic Sample Excluding SNAP Receipt From Control Variables

eTable 9. Association of Food Insecurity With Dementia Risk and Memory Score in Complete Case Sample

eTable 10. Association of Food Insecurity With Dementia Risk and Memory Score in Models Not Controlling for Cognitive Outcomes in 2012

eMethods. Construction of Censoring Weights

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Qian H , Khadka A , Martinez SM, et al. Food Insecurity, Memory, and Dementia Among US Adults Aged 50 Years and Older. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(11):e2344186. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44186

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Food Insecurity, Memory, and Dementia Among US Adults Aged 50 Years and Older

• 1 Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco
• 2 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco
• 3 Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research, Portland, Oregon
• 4 Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
• 5 Global Brain Health Institute, University of California, San Francisco
• 6 Department of Epidemiology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

Question   Is food insecurity among older adults associated with higher subsequent dementia risk and memory decline?

Findings   In this cohort study of 7012 older adults, food insecurity was associated with an increased estimated dementia risk. Food insecurity was also associated with lower memory scores and faster memory decline.

Meaning   The findings of this study suggest that food insecurity among older adults is associated with worse cognitive performance and higher dementia risk.

Importance   Despite existing federal programs to increase access to food, food insecurity is common among US older adults. Food insecurity may affect Alzheimer disease and Alzheimer disease–related dementias via multiple mechanisms, yet there is almost no quantitative research evaluating this association.

Objective   To examine whether food insecurity in older adults is associated with later-life cognitive outcomes.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cohort study of US residents aged 50 years and older from the US Health and Retirement Study was restricted to respondents with food insecurity data in 2013 and cognitive outcome data between calendar years 2014 and 2018. Analyses were conducted from June 1 to September 22, 2023.

Exposure   Food insecurity status in 2013 was assessed using the validated US Department of Agriculture 6-item Household Food Security Module. Respondents were classified as being food secure, low food secure, and very low food secure.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Outcomes were dementia probability and memory score (standardized to 1998 units), estimated biennially between 2014 and 2018 using a previously validated algorithm. Generalized estimation equations were fit for dementia risk and linear mixed-effects models for memory score, taking selective attrition into account through inverse probability of censoring weights.

Results   The sample consisted of 7012 participants (18 356 person-waves); mean (SD) age was 67.7 (10.0) years, 4131 (58.9%) were women, 1136 (16.2%) were non-Hispanic Black, 4849 (69.2%) were non-Hispanic White, and mean (SD) duration of schooling was 13.0 (3.0) years. Compared with food-secure older adults, experiencing low food security was associated with higher odds of dementia (odds ratio, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.15-1.67) as was experiencing very low food security (odds ratio, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.11-1.59). Low and very low food security was also associated with lower memory levels and faster age-related memory decline.

Conclusions and Relevance   In this cohort study of older US residents, food insecurity was associated with increased dementia risk, poorer memory function, and faster memory decline. Future studies are needed to examine whether addressing food insecurity may benefit brain health.

The number of US residents aged 65 years and older living with Alzheimer disease and Alzheimer disease–related dementias (AD/ADRD) is expected to increase from 5.8 million in 2020 to 14 million by 2060. 1 Similarly, food insecurity, defined as a lack of consistent access to enough food for a healthy, active lifestyle, is persistent, and the prevalence in households with elderly individuals increased from 5.3% (2001) to 7.1% (2021). 2 - 4 Among adults between the ages of 50 and 59 years, the prevalence of food insecurity is estimated to be higher at 9.4% in 2021. 5 Older adults living with food insecurity are more likely to have lower nutrient intakes and experience poorer health outcomes, such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, increased stress and depression, and increased dementia risk. 6 - 10

The Lifecourse Health Development Framework, which explains how health trajectories develop over a lifetime, informs several plausible mechanisms by which food insecurity impacts dementia risk ( Figure 1 ). 11 First, food insecurity arises due to financial constraints, which limit access to healthful foods and contribute to a lower quality, quantity, and variety diet. 12 , 13 Next, food insecurity may lead to poor nutrition, trigger stress pathways, or increase the likelihood of poor cardiometabolic health and mental illness. Ultimately, these factors, including food insecurity, may increase the risk of cognitive decline. 9 , 14 - 18

Few studies have rigorously investigated food security in terms of its association with AD/ADRD. Earlier studies on this topic have been conducted primarily on cross-sectional data with small and selected subpopulations or have used inconsistent measures of food insecurity and later-life AD/ADRD risk. 19 A recent systematic review 20 identified only 1 longitudinal study examining food insecurity’s association with subsequent cognitive decline in older adults, with an association over a 2-year follow-up, consistent with several cross-sectional studies that also documented associations between food insecurity and cognitive decline. 21 - 25

As food insecurity may be modifiable through existing government programs (eg, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program [SNAP]) and there are limited existing treatment options for dementia, it is important to evaluate whether food insecurity is associated with increased dementia risk. 26 , 27 We rigorously evaluated the association between food insecurity in later life and cognitive health, including dementia risk and age-related memory decline, in a large and diverse sample of US older adults. Our work builds on prior literature by using longitudinal data, validated measures of food insecurity and dementia risk, and robust adjustment for life course socioeconomic variables.

This cohort study used data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a nationally representative, biennially fielded longitudinal survey of noninstitutionalized individuals aged 50 years and older and their spouses. 28 The HRS and its various substudies collect rich data on life course demographic characteristics, health, labor market, and socioeconomic status. This study was waived from institutional board review because it did not involve human participation by the Human Research Protection Program at the University of California, San Francisco. This study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

We used food security status data from the 2013 Health Care and Nutrition Study (HCNS), an HRS substudy regarding health care access, food purchases, food consumption, and nutrition (N = 8073). 29 We combined HCNS data with outcome and covariate data from the broader HRS survey. Our study period was from calendar years 2013 to 2018.

Among HCNS participants, we excluded those younger than 50 years (n = 176, typically spouses of age-eligible participants) or those not included in the HRS cross-wave respondent tracker data set (n = 2). We also excluded participants who did not provide complete data on food security status (n = 501) or had missing cognition data for the entire study period (n = 382).

Food security status was assessed using the validated US Department of Agriculture (USDA) 6-Item Short Form US Household Food Security Survey Module. 30 Respondents were asked a series of questions related to food purchases and consumption over the past 12 months to determine food security status, such as whether they were able to afford the food they needed or whether they ate less due to financial constraints (full questionnaire presented in eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). Using USDA guidelines, we summed the number of affirmative answers to the 6 questions (score range, 0-6), where higher raw scores indicate higher food insecurity levels. We then categorized the total score into 3 levels in accordance with the USDA guidelines: food secure (high and marginal statuses, scores: 0-1), low food secure (scores: 2-4), and very low food secure (scores: 5-6).

The outcomes were algorithmically defined and previously validated dementia probability and memory scores measured in the 2014, 2016, and 2018 waves of the HRS. 31 Both measures were developed specifically in the HRS by training prediction models on the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study (ADAMS) substudy. The ADAMS substudy focused on HRS respondents aged 70 years and older in 2000 and 2002 and had participants go through a full neuropsychological battery and dementia diagnosis. 32

Dementia probability is the risk of a respondent being demented at the time of the survey. It is a composite measure that combines responses to various cognitive questions in the HRS as well as demographic information. 31 , 33 Dementia probability values range from 0 to 1, and higher values reflect higher dementia risk. Compared with the standard clinical diagnosis of dementia, the dementia probability algorithm achieved a C statistic of 0.67, indicating acceptable performance.

Memory score is a measure of a respondent’s memory-related cognitive function at the time of the survey. It is also a composite measure that combines responses from various cognitive questions and demographic information. Higher values of memory score reflect better memory performance. We standardized memory score in our sample to the 1998 memory score distribution in the HRS for ease of interpretation.

We adjusted for the following potential confounders: age at food security assessment (in 2013), sex (male and female), self-reported race and ethnicity as part of the HRS surveys (non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, non-Hispanic White, and Other), educational level (in years, linear and quadratic terms), birthplace (by census regions), married or not married status (in 2012, the year preceding the food security assessment), age at each interview wave (centered at 70 years, linear and quadratic terms), and body mass index (self-reported, 2012). Race was included as a proxy for racialized experiences that structurally minoritized groups face, which is associated with both the exposure and outcome. The Other race category included non-Hispanic categories of Alaska Native, American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and any other self-specified race.

We also included flexible specifications of several baseline (2012) measures of income and wealth to account for confounding by socioeconomic status: total earnings; total wealth; total assets, including second home; poverty status (yes or no); mother’s and father’s years of education (in years, linear and quadratic terms); labor force status (yes or no); home ownership (categorical variable: own or buying, renting, or living rent-free with relative, employer, friends, or others), veteran status (yes or no); Social Security income; welfare benefits; veteran benefits; and SNAP benefits the household received. As these socioeconomic status measures may all be correlated, we examined the covariance matrix to evaluate collinearity and found that no confounders were correlated above 0.8. All income, wealth, and social benefits were inflation adjusted to 2018 US dollars. When covariate data were missing in 2012, we used the 2010 value instead. We also created missing indicators (1 = data missing, 0 = otherwise) for mother’s educational level and father’s educational level as missing parental education data may indicate that the respondent did not reside with their parents during childhood, which is a marker of social capital. 34 , 35 To minimize the possibility that those with lower cognition are less likely to apply for SNAP benefits, we additionally controlled for preexposure cognition, ie, dementia risk and memory score in 2012. 36

To reduce selection bias due to missing data, we assumed the missingness mechanism was missing at random and used multiple imputation chained equation to impute missing covariates (558 [7.1%] individuals for dementia risk; 556 [7.0%] individuals for memory score) and outcome data (382 [5.4%] for the entire study period, 157 [2.2%] for baseline dementia risk, and 154 [2.2%] for baseline memory score). 37 We constructed 10 imputed data sets. In each imputed data set, we estimated inverse probability weights to address censoring due to death (details in the eMethods in Supplement 1 ). 38 , 39

In each imputed data set, we estimated the food insecurity and dementia risk association using generalized estimating equations specifying an independent correlation structure and applying robust SEs to account for repeated-outcome measures. 40 - 45 Similarly, in each imputed data set, we estimated the food insecurity and memory association using a linear mixed-effects model. We modeled the food insecurity association with age-related memory decline, using an interaction between the exposure and age. We used Rubin rules to combine estimates across all imputed data sets. 46

After combining the estimates, we contextualized the food insecurity association with memory by dividing coefficients on the exposure variable by the coefficient on the age covariate in our model to translate our primary associations into years of excess cognitive aging. We plotted predicted memory values by age and food insecurity status to visualize the food insecurity and memory association.

To test whether our results were robust to different exposure specifications, we redefined food insecurity status using alternative USDA cut points: first, as a binary indicator for food secure and insecure status (food secure = high or marginal food security; food insecure = low and very low food security), and second, as a 4-level categorical variable for food secure status (high vs marginal vs low vs very low).

We also tested whether our results were robust to different outcome specifications. For dementia probability, we used 3 additional algorithmically defined measures of dementia risk developed in the HRS data by Gianattasio et al. 47 These were based on a modified Hurd algorithm, an algorithm developed using expert input to select covariates, and a machine learning–based least absolute shrinkage and selection operator–reduced logistic regression algorithm. Data on all 3 dementia risk measures were available for direct download from the HRS website. For memory score, we used immediate and delayed word recall as alternative outcomes. These scores were not algorithmically defined and were only available for direct respondents to the HRS.

Additionally, we refit our primary models by excluding SNAP benefits as a covariate. This is because SNAP benefits could potentially be endogenous with the food insecurity exposure, as there may be some temporal overlap between SNAP receipt status and the 1-year period during which food insecurity is measured. We also conducted the primary analyses in the complete case sample to assess our method of handling missing data. To acknowledge that adjusting for preexposure cognition may introduce regression-to-the-mean bias in change score analysis, we also performed sensitivity analyses without adjusting for the 2012 memory score. 48

Regression models were adjusted for age at baseline, age centered at 70 years (linear and quadratic terms), 2012 dementia risk, sex, race and ethnicity, years of education, mother’s education, father’s education (linear and quadratic terms), birthplace, marital status, self-reported body mass index, income and wealth (linear and quadratic terms), poverty status, labor force status, home ownership, amount received from food stamps, welfare benefits, veteran status, veteran benefits, and Social Security income. Regression model parameters were estimated after imputing the primary analytic sample 10 times to fill in missing values using inverse probability of censoring weights to account for potential differential attrition and combining the results from all imputed data sets using the Rubin rules.

All analyses were conducted in Stata MP, version 18 (StataCorp LLC). One of us (A.K.) reviewed the entire code as is recommended practice. 49 Analyses were conducted from June 1 to September 22, 2023. We report 2-sided 95% CIs. All statistical tests were 2-sided, with a significance threshold of P  < .05.

Our primary analytic sample included 7012 participants (18 356 person-waves; mean person-waves per respondent, 2.6). Respondents’ mean (SD) age was 67.7 (10.0) years, 4131 (58.9%) were women, 2881 (41.1%) were men, 1136 (16.2%) were non-Hispanic Black, 4849 (69.2%) were non-Hispanic White, 4357 (62.4%) were married in 2012, and mean (SD) duration of schooling was 13.0 (3.0) years ( Table ). Overall, 18.4% of the analytic sample were food insecure: 10.3% experienced low food security and 8.1% experienced very low food security. In the analytic sample, approximately 11% of individuals aged 65 years or older at baseline reported being food insecure. In contrast, approximately 28% of individuals younger than 65 years in our analytic sample reported being food insecure. Compared with those who were food secure (marginal or high), those with low and very low food security were younger, more likely to be women and non-Hispanic Black or Hispanic, had fewer years of schooling, lived in poverty, earned less, received greater welfare support, and were renters. Respondents experiencing low and very low food security were also less likely to be married.

Compared with older adults with food security, those who experienced low food security had 1.38 times higher odds of dementia (95% CI, 1.15-1.67; in log odds: 0.33; 95% CI, 0.14-0.51), and those who experienced very low food security had 1.37 times higher odds of dementia (95% CI, 1.11-1.69; in log odds: 0.31; 95% CI, 0.10-0.52) ( Figure 2 ; eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ). Translated to years of excess cognitive aging, point estimates showed that food insecurity is associated with increased dementia risk equivalent to approximately 1.3 excess years of aging.

Compared with older adults with food security, those who experienced low and very low food security had worse memory levels at age 70 years (low β = −0.04; 95% CI, −0.08 to 0.00; very low β  =  −0.06; 95% CI, −0.1 to −0.01) (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). Translated to years of excess cognitive aging, low food insecurity was associated with decreased cognitive levels equivalent to approximately 0.7 years of excess aging per year, and very low food insecurity was associated with 1 year of excess aging per year. Older adults with food insecurity also had a marginally faster rate of age-related memory decline (low × age β = −0.005; 95% CI, −0.008 to −0.001; very low × age β = −0.009; 95% CI, −0.014 to −0.003) compared with food-secure individuals (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ; Figure 3 ).

Results were substantially similar (ie, point estimates and 95% CIs may vary, but conclusions are the same) under different exposure specifications (eTable 4 and eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ) and using different dementia algorithms (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ) as well as immediate and delayed word recall scores (eTable 7 in Supplement 1 ). Estimates in models without adjusting for SNAP receipt (eTable 8 in Supplement 1 ), using complete case data (eTable 9 in Supplement 1 ), or without controlling for preexposure cognitive outcomes (eTable 10 in Supplement 1 ) were also quantitatively similar to the primary results.

This cohort study evaluated the association between food insecurity among older adults and subsequent cognitive health using validated measures from the large, diverse longitudinal US HRS. We found that individuals who experienced low or very low food security had a higher probability of dementia, worse memory level, and faster rate of memory decline compared with those who were food secure. Memory decline diverged slightly faster among the very low food security group than the low food security group. Our primary results were robust to alternative specifications of the exposure, outcome, and analytic models.

In the current study, 11% of HRS participants aged 65 years and older experienced food insecurity, which is approximately 4% higher than reported among older adult participants (age ≥60 years) in the 2020 Current Population Survey. 50 The higher prevalence of food insecurity in our data was possibly a consequence of the Great Recession (2007-2009) in this population, which is consistent with examined trends in food insecurity. 51 , 52 Current population survey data showed that nearly 9% of older adults experienced food insecurity with the onset of the Great Recession, with lingering effects into 2014. 53 We also found that individuals experiencing food insecurity were, on average, younger and had lower educational attainment compared with those with food security. These findings suggest that food insecurity is more common among the same socioeconomically disadvantaged groups who are at high risk of dementia. 54 - 57 Together, these findings highlight the role that social determinants of health may play later in life.

While much of the literature regarding food insecurity focuses on early life factors, our study is among the first highlighting the outcomes associated with food insecurity later in life. 24 , 58 - 60 Recent findings by Lu and colleagues 61 examined SNAP participation among SNAP-eligible adults—a group that is vulnerable to food insecurity—and found faster memory function decline among those experiencing food insecurity or not participating in SNAP compared with their counterparts. Our study examined food insecurity as the exposure, which builds on findings by Lu and colleagues given that SNAP participation among eligible older adults is underused compared with other segments of the population (48% compared with 86% overall in 2018). 36 , 62

Our study has strengths. Using a large and diverse data set, our study is in line with and adds evidence to the limited previous literature on food security and brain health by using both validated exposure and outcome data: the 6-item USDA Household Food Security Module and algorithmically defined, validated dementia probability and memory scores. Additionally, our outcome measures allowed us to incorporate information from both direct and proxy respondents in the HRS. Another strength is that food security was assessed before the outcome; therefore, we were able to examine exposure that temporally preceded the outcome.

Our study has limitations. A previous study using HRS data found that among SNAP-eligible adults, participants with reduced levels of cognitive function were less likely to participate in SNAP. 36 However, in an advance over earlier work, we adjusted for preexposure cognition, minimizing this potential bias. Second, residual confounding remains a possibility in our study. To mitigate residual confounding, we included variables that reflected childhood and adulthood socioeconomic status and included flexible specifications of these variables. Weight loss in subclinical AD could exacerbate the effects of food insecurity on cognitive outcomes, although we adjusted for preexposure body mass index in 2012. Another potential confounder is food insecurity status before 2013, which was not available using the 6-item questionnaire. Future studies could examine food insecurity over a longer period. In addition, clinical diagnosis of dementia was not directly observed.

Our cohort study has several policy implications. The findings suggest that food insecurity remains high among older adults. Additionally, given limited treatment options for dementia, reducing its risk by targeting modifiable risk factors, such as food security, may be necessary. Food security may be easier to modify than other potentially modifiable risk factors, such as education and exercise, as it may be addressable through existing federal programs, such as SNAP. 63 Increasing SNAP participation rates among older adults might constitute a viable population-level solution to reduce AD/ADRD disparities and improve brain health. The take-up rates of SNAP among eligible individuals varies substantially by state, ranging from 55% in Wyoming to an estimated 100% in a number of states, such as Oregon, Washington, and Illinois. 62 , 64 In general, one reason for lower uptake is high administrative burden in completing paperwork among eligible participants, which suggests that simplifying the application process might increase the take-up rate, especially for those with any cognitive impairment. 65

In this cohort study, we found that food insecurity in older adulthood was associated with increased dementia risk and faster memory decline. Our study contributes to a limited literature by capitalizing on a large and diverse sample, validated exposure and outcome measures, and longitudinal data to robustly evaluate these associations, providing evidence in support of the connection between food insecurity in older adulthood and subsequent brain health. Our findings highlight the need to improve food security in older adults and that doing so may protect individuals from cognitive decline and dementia. Bolstering SNAP by making it easier for older adults who are SNAP eligible to apply could potentially mitigate the negative association food insecurity has with brain health.

Accepted for Publication: October 10, 2023.

Published: November 21, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44186

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Qian H et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Aayush Khadka, PhD, Department of Family Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Ave, #2211, San Francisco, CA 94110 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Qian and Khadka had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Qian, Martinez, Zeki Al Hazzouri, Glymour, Vable.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Qian, Khadka, Martinez, Singh, Brenowitz, Hill-Jarrett, Vable.

Drafting of the manuscript: Qian, Khadka, Martinez, Singh.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Qian, Khadka, Glymour.

Obtained funding: Martinez, Vable.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Qian, Singh.

Supervision: Qian, Martinez, Vable.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Brenowitz reported grants from the National Institute on Aging (NIA) outside the submitted work. Dr Hill-Jarrett reported receiving Neuropsychologist consulting fees for Cogstate. Dr Glymour reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health NIA during the conduct of the study. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: The study was supported by NIA grants RF1AG079202 (Martinez, Vable) and R01AG074351 (Vable).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The NIA had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation

Chittaranjan andrade.

Department of Psychopharmacology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Abstracts of scientific papers are sometimes poorly written, often lack important information, and occasionally convey a biased picture. This paper provides detailed suggestions, with examples, for writing the background, methods, results, and conclusions sections of a good abstract. The primary target of this paper is the young researcher; however, authors with all levels of experience may find useful ideas in the paper.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is the third in a series on manuscript writing skills, published in the Indian Journal of Psychiatry . Earlier articles offered suggestions on how to write a good case report,[ 1 ] and how to read, write, or review a paper on randomized controlled trials.[ 2 , 3 ] The present paper examines how authors may write a good abstract when preparing their manuscript for a scientific journal or conference presentation. Although the primary target of this paper is the young researcher, it is likely that authors with all levels of experience will find at least a few ideas that may be useful in their future efforts.

The abstract of a paper is the only part of the paper that is published in conference proceedings. The abstract is the only part of the paper that a potential referee sees when he is invited by an editor to review a manuscript. The abstract is the only part of the paper that readers see when they search through electronic databases such as PubMed. Finally, most readers will acknowledge, with a chuckle, that when they leaf through the hard copy of a journal, they look at only the titles of the contained papers. If a title interests them, they glance through the abstract of that paper. Only a dedicated reader will peruse the contents of the paper, and then, most often only the introduction and discussion sections. Only a reader with a very specific interest in the subject of the paper, and a need to understand it thoroughly, will read the entire paper.

Thus, for the vast majority of readers, the paper does not exist beyond its abstract. For the referees, and the few readers who wish to read beyond the abstract, the abstract sets the tone for the rest of the paper. It is therefore the duty of the author to ensure that the abstract is properly representative of the entire paper. For this, the abstract must have some general qualities. These are listed in Table 1 .

General qualities of a good abstract

SECTIONS OF AN ABSTRACT

Although some journals still publish abstracts that are written as free-flowing paragraphs, most journals require abstracts to conform to a formal structure within a word count of, usually, 200–250 words. The usual sections defined in a structured abstract are the Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions; other headings with similar meanings may be used (eg, Introduction in place of Background or Findings in place of Results). Some journals include additional sections, such as Objectives (between Background and Methods) and Limitations (at the end of the abstract). In the rest of this paper, issues related to the contents of each section will be examined in turn.

This section should be the shortest part of the abstract and should very briefly outline the following information:

• What is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question
• What is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present)

In most cases, the background can be framed in just 2–3 sentences, with each sentence describing a different aspect of the information referred to above; sometimes, even a single sentence may suffice. The purpose of the background, as the word itself indicates, is to provide the reader with a background to the study, and hence to smoothly lead into a description of the methods employed in the investigation.

Some authors publish papers the abstracts of which contain a lengthy background section. There are some situations, perhaps, where this may be justified. In most cases, however, a longer background section means that less space remains for the presentation of the results. This is unfortunate because the reader is interested in the paper because of its findings, and not because of its background.

A wide variety of acceptably composed backgrounds is provided in Table 2 ; most of these have been adapted from actual papers.[ 4 – 9 ] Readers may wish to compare the content in Table 2 with the original abstracts to see how the adaptations possibly improve on the originals. Note that, in the interest of brevity, unnecessary content is avoided. For instance, in Example 1 there is no need to state “The antidepressant efficacy of desvenlafaxine (DV), a dual-acting antidepressant drug , has been established…” (the unnecessary content is italicized).

Examples of the background section of an abstract

The methods section is usually the second-longest section in the abstract. It should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. Table 3 lists important questions to which the methods section should provide brief answers.

Questions regarding which information should ideally be available in the methods section of an abstract

Carelessly written methods sections lack information about important issues such as sample size, numbers of patients in different groups, doses of medications, and duration of the study. Readers have only to flip through the pages of a randomly selected journal to realize how common such carelessness is.

Table 4 presents examples of the contents of accept-ably written methods sections, modified from actual publications.[ 10 , 11 ] Readers are invited to take special note of the first sentence of each example in Table 4 ; each is packed with detail, illustrating how to convey the maximum quantity of information with maximum economy of word count.

Examples of the methods section of an abstract

The results section is the most important part of the abstract and nothing should compromise its range and quality. This is because readers who peruse an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore be the longest part of the abstract and should contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits. For example, it is bad writing to state “Response rates differed significantly between diabetic and nondiabetic patients.” A better sentence is “The response rate was higher in nondiabetic than in diabetic patients (49% vs 30%, respectively; P <0.01).”

Important information that the results should present is indicated in Table 5 . Examples of acceptably written abstracts are presented in Table 6 ; one of these has been modified from an actual publication.[ 11 ] Note that the first example is rather narrative in style, whereas the second example is packed with data.

Information that the results section of the abstract should ideally present

Examples of the results section of an abstract

CONCLUSIONS

This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcome measure; however, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, for the authors to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:

• The primary take-home message
• The additional findings of importance
• The perspective

Despite its necessary brevity, this section has the most impact on the average reader because readers generally trust authors and take their assertions at face value. For this reason, the conclusions should also be scrupulously honest; and authors should not claim more than their data demonstrate. Hypothetical examples of the conclusions section of an abstract are presented in Table 7 .

Examples of the conclusions section of an abstract

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS

Citation of references anywhere within an abstract is almost invariably inappropriate. Other examples of unnecessary content in an abstract are listed in Table 8 .

Examples of unnecessary content in a abstract

It goes without saying that whatever is present in the abstract must also be present in the text. Likewise, whatever errors should not be made in the text should not appear in the abstract (eg, mistaking association for causality).

As already mentioned, the abstract is the only part of the paper that the vast majority of readers see. Therefore, it is critically important for authors to ensure that their enthusiasm or bias does not deceive the reader; unjustified speculations could be even more harmful. Misleading readers could harm the cause of science and have an adverse impact on patient care.[ 12 ] A recent study,[ 13 ] for example, concluded that venlafaxine use during the second trimester of pregnancy may increase the risk of neonates born small for gestational age. However, nowhere in the abstract did the authors mention that these conclusions were based on just 5 cases and 12 controls out of the total sample of 126 cases and 806 controls. There were several other serious limitations that rendered the authors’ conclusions tentative, at best; yet, nowhere in the abstract were these other limitations expressed.

As a parting note: Most journals provide clear instructions to authors on the formatting and contents of different parts of the manuscript. These instructions often include details on what the sections of an abstract should contain. Authors should tailor their abstracts to the specific requirements of the journal to which they plan to submit their manuscript. It could also be an excellent idea to model the abstract of the paper, sentence for sentence, on the abstract of an important paper on a similar subject and with similar methodology, published in the same journal for which the manuscript is slated.

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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How to Write Dissertation Acknowledgements?

The process of completing a dissertation is no easy task and definitely is not a solitary achievement, as many people contribute to the research project in one way or another. However, researchers often forget or overlook the acknowledgement section in their dissertations. This critical section is usually given less attention than it deserves, and this is unfortunate. While some may consider the acknowledgements section to be a mere formality, it is actually an essential piece of writing that requires careful consideration. In this article, we will discuss how to write an effective acknowledgements section, who to acknowledge, and tips to help PhD students write an effective dissertation acknowledgement section.   

Why is the acknowledgements section important ?   

The acknowledgements section is a way to show appreciation to those who have helped you complete your dissertation successfully. It is a way to recognize the efforts of those who have provided the guidance, support, resources, assistance and encouragement required throughout the often challenging dissertation process.    

Who must you include in your acknowledgements ?   

When writing the acknowledgements section, it is important to acknowledge everyone who has contributed to the research project. This should not be limited to those who have provided financial support or academic guidance but must also include family, friends, colleagues, advisors, mentors, research participants, and funding agencies.    

How to structure and write the acknowledgements section    

Start writing the acknowledgement section by mentioning supervisors, mentors, committees, and other professional contacts because it is customary, to begin with the formal and then move to the more personal part. Also, remember to briefly share how their contributions have been invaluable to your work. Use full names and titles to make it professional. The second part of the acknowledgement section is where you can include family and friends. While this part can be more casual, do ensure that you do not use sarcasm or language that might be seen as critical, even in jest.    

Tips for writing an effective acknowledgements section    

Start early.

It is essential to start working on the acknowledgements section early in the dissertation process. This will give you ample time to compile a comprehensive list of everyone who has contributed to the research project. Starting early will also allow you to write the acknowledgements section more thoughtfully and reflectively.   

Be Specific

When writing the acknowledgements section, be specific about the contributions of each individual. This can include particular feedback, resources, or support that they provided. By being specific, you are showing that you have taken the time to reflect on the contributions of each individual.   

Use a Professional Tone

While the acknowledgements section can be a heartfelt thank you, it should still maintain a professional tone. Avoid using overly casual language or humour that may detract from the seriousness of the research project.   

Consider the Reader

When writing the acknowledgements section, consider the reader. This section should be accessible to both academic and non-academic readers. Avoid using jargon or technical language that may be difficult for non-academic readers to understand.   

Keep it Concise

While it is important to acknowledge everyone who has contributed to the research project, the acknowledgements section should also be concise. Avoid listing every single person who has contributed. Instead, focus on the individuals who have made the most significant contributions.   

Finally, be gracious in your acknowledgements section. Remember that everyone who has contributed to the research project has done so out of a desire to help and support you. By expressing gratitude and appreciation, you are showing that you recognize and value their contributions.   

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