obesity reflective essay

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Essay on Obesity

List of essays on obesity, essay on obesity – short essay (essay 1 – 150 words), essay on obesity (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on obesity – written in english (essay 3 – 300 words), essay on obesity – for school students (class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 standard) (essay 4 – 400 words), essay on obesity – for college students (essay 5 – 500 words), essay on obesity – with causes and treatment (essay 6 – 600 words), essay on obesity – for science students (essay 7 – 750 words), essay on obesity – long essay for medical students (essay 8 – 1000 words).

Obesity is a chronic health condition in which the body fat reaches abnormal level. Obesity occurs when we consume much more amount of food than our body really needs on a daily basis. In other words, when the intake of calories is greater than the calories we burn out, it gives rise to obesity.

Audience: The below given essays are exclusively written for school students (Class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 Standard), college, science and medical students.

Introduction:

Obesity means being excessively fat. A person would be said to be obese if his or her body mass index is beyond 30. Such a person has a body fat rate that is disproportionate to his body mass.

Obesity and the Body Mass Index:

The body mass index is calculated considering the weight and height of a person. Thus, it is a scientific way of determining the appropriate weight of any person. When the body mass index of a person indicates that he or she is obese, it exposes the person to make health risk.

Stopping Obesity:

There are two major ways to get the body mass index of a person to a moderate rate. The first is to maintain a strict diet. The second is to engage in regular physical exercise. These two approaches are aimed at reducing the amount of fat in the body.

Conclusion:

Obesity can lead to sudden death, heart attack, diabetes and may unwanted illnesses. Stop it by making healthy choices.

Obesity has become a big concern for the youth of today’s generation. Obesity is defined as a medical condition in which an individual gains excessive body fat. When the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person is over 30, he/ she is termed as obese.

Obesity can be a genetic problem or a disorder that is caused due to unhealthy lifestyle habits of a person. Physical inactivity and the environment in which an individual lives, are also the factors that leads to obesity. It is also seen that when some individuals are in stress or depression, they start cultivating unhealthy eating habits which eventually leads to obesity. Medications like steroids is yet another reason for obesity.

Obesity has several serious health issues associated with it. Some of the impacts of obesity are diabetes, increase of cholesterol level, high blood pressure, etc. Social impacts of obesity includes loss of confidence in an individual, lowering of self-esteem, etc.

The risks of obesity needs to be prevented. This can be done by adopting healthy eating habits, doing some physical exercise regularly, avoiding stress, etc. Individuals should work on weight reduction in order to avoid obesity.

Obesity is indeed a health concern and needs to be prioritized. The management of obesity revolves around healthy eating habits and physical activity. Obesity, if not controlled in its initial stage can cause many severe health issues. So it is wiser to exercise daily and maintain a healthy lifestyle rather than being the victim of obesity.

Obesity can be defined as the clinical condition where accumulation of excessive fat takes place in the adipose tissue leading to worsening of health condition. Usually, the fat is deposited around the trunk and also the waist of the body or even around the periphery.

Obesity is actually a disease that has been spreading far and wide. It is preventable and certain measures are to be taken to curb it to a greater extend. Both in the developing and developed countries, obesity has been growing far and wide affecting the young and the old equally.

The alarming increase in obesity has resulted in stimulated death rate and health issues among the people. There are several methods adopted to lose weight and they include different diet types, physical activity and certain changes in the current lifestyle. Many of the companies are into minting money with the concept of inviting people to fight obesity.

In patients associated with increased risk factor related to obesity, there are certain drug therapies and other procedures adopted to lose weight. There are certain cost effective ways introduced by several companies to enable clinic-based weight loss programs.

Obesity can lead to premature death and even cause Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Cardiovascular diseases have also become the part and parcel of obese people. It includes stroke, hypertension, gall bladder disease, coronary heart disease and even cancers like breast cancer, prostate cancer, endometrial cancer and colon cancer. Other less severe arising due to obesity includes osteoarthritis, gastro-esophageal reflux disease and even infertility.

Hence, serious measures are to be taken to fight against this dreadful phenomenon that is spreading its wings far and wide. Giving proper education on benefits of staying fit and mindful eating is as important as curbing this issue. Utmost importance must be given to healthy eating habits right from the small age so that they follow the same until the end of their life.

Obesity is majorly a lifestyle disease attributed to the extra accumulation of fat in the body leading to negative health effects on a person. Ironically, although prevalent at a large scale in many countries, including India, it is one of the most neglect health problems. It is more often ignored even if told by the doctor that the person is obese. Only when people start acquiring other health issues such as heart disease, blood pressure or diabetes, they start taking the problem of obesity seriously.

Obesity Statistics in India:

As per a report, India happens to figure as the third country in the world with the most obese people. This should be a troubling fact for India. However, we are yet to see concrete measures being adopted by the people to remain fit.

Causes of Obesity:

Sedentary lifestyle, alcohol, junk food, medications and some diseases such as hypothyroidism are considered as the factors which lead to obesity. Even children seem to be glued to televisions, laptops and video games which have taken away the urge for physical activities from them. Adding to this, the consumption of junk food has further aggravated the growing problem of obesity in children.

In the case of adults, most of the professions of today make use of computers which again makes people sit for long hours in one place. Also, the hectic lifestyle of today makes it difficult for people to spare time for physical activities and people usually remain stressed most of the times. All this has contributed significantly to the rise of obesity in India.

Obesity and BMI:

Body Mass Index (BMI) is the measure which allows a person to calculate how to fit he or she is. In other words, the BMI tells you if you are obese or not. BMI is calculated by dividing the weight of a person in kg with the square of his / her height in metres. The number thus obtained is called the BMI. A BMI of less than 25 is considered optimal. However, if a person has a BMI over 30 he/she is termed as obese.

What is a matter of concern is that with growing urbanisation there has been a rapid increase of obese people in India? It is of utmost importance to consider this health issue a serious threat to the future of our country as a healthy body is important for a healthy soul. We should all be mindful of what we eat and what effect it has on our body. It is our utmost duty to educate not just ourselves but others as well about this serious health hazard.

Obesity can be defined as a condition (medical) that is the accumulation of body fat to an extent that the excess fat begins to have a lot of negative effects on the health of the individual. Obesity is determined by examining the body mass index (BMI) of the person. The BMI is gotten by dividing the weight of the person in kilogram by the height of the person squared.

When the BMI of a person is more than 30, the person is classified as being obese, when the BMI falls between 25 and 30, the person is said to be overweight. In a few countries in East Asia, lower values for the BMI are used. Obesity has been proven to influence the likelihood and risk of many conditions and disease, most especially diabetes of type 2, cardiovascular diseases, sleeplessness that is obstructive, depression, osteoarthritis and some cancer types.

In most cases, obesity is caused through a combination of genetic susceptibility, a lack of or inadequate physical activity, excessive intake of food. Some cases of obesity are primarily caused by mental disorder, medications, endocrine disorders or genes. There is no medical data to support the fact that people suffering from obesity eat very little but gain a lot of weight because of slower metabolism. It has been discovered that an obese person usually expends much more energy than other people as a result of the required energy that is needed to maintain a body mass that is increased.

It is very possible to prevent obesity with a combination of personal choices and social changes. The major treatments are exercising and a change in diet. We can improve the quality of our diet by reducing our consumption of foods that are energy-dense like those that are high in sugars or fat and by trying to increase our dietary fibre intake.

We can also accompany the appropriate diet with the use of medications to help in reducing appetite and decreasing the absorption of fat. If medication, exercise and diet are not yielding any positive results, surgery or gastric balloon can also be carried out to decrease the volume of the stomach and also reduce the intestines’ length which leads to the feel of the person get full early or a reduction in the ability to get and absorb different nutrients from a food.

Obesity is the leading cause of ill-health and death all over the world that is preventable. The rate of obesity in children and adults has drastically increased. In 2015, a whopping 12 percent of adults which is about 600 million and about 100 million children all around the world were found to be obese.

It has also been discovered that women are more obese than men. A lot of government and private institutions and bodies have stated that obesity is top of the list of the most difficult and serious problems of public health that we have in the world today. In the world we live today, there is a lot of stigmatisation of obese people.

We all know how troubling the problem of obesity truly is. It is mainly a form of a medical condition wherein the body tends to accumulate excessive fat which in turn has negative repercussions on the health of an individual.

Given the current lifestyle and dietary style, it has become more common than ever. More and more people are being diagnosed with obesity. Such is its prevalence that it has been termed as an epidemic in the USA. Those who suffer from obesity are at a much higher risk of diabetes, heart diseases and even cancer.

In order to gain a deeper understanding of obesity, it is important to learn what the key causes of obesity are. In a layman term, if your calorie consumption exceeds what you burn because of daily activities and exercises, it is likely to lead to obesity. It is caused over a prolonged period of time when your calorie intake keeps exceeding the calories burned.

Here are some of the key causes which are known to be the driving factors for obesity.

If your diet tends to be rich in fat and contains massive calorie intake, you are all set to suffer from obesity.

Sedentary Lifestyle:

With most people sticking to their desk jobs and living a sedentary lifestyle, the body tends to get obese easily.

Of course, the genetic framework has a lot to do with obesity. If your parents are obese, the chance of you being obese is quite high.

The weight which women gain during their pregnancy can be very hard to shed and this is often one of the top causes of obesity.

Sleep Cycle:

If you are not getting an adequate amount of sleep, it can have an impact on the hormones which might trigger hunger signals. Overall, these linked events tend to make you obese.

Hormonal Disorder:

There are several hormonal changes which are known to be direct causes of obesity. The imbalance of the thyroid stimulating hormone, for instance, is one of the key factors when it comes to obesity.

Now that we know the key causes, let us look at the possible ways by which you can handle it.

Treatment for Obesity:

As strange as it may sound, the treatment for obesity is really simple. All you need to do is follow the right diet and back it with an adequate amount of exercise. If you can succeed in doing so, it will give you the perfect head-start into your journey of getting in shape and bidding goodbye to obesity.

There are a lot of different kinds and styles of diet plans for obesity which are available. You can choose the one which you deem fit. We recommend not opting for crash dieting as it is known to have several repercussions and can make your body terribly weak.

The key here is to stick to a balanced diet which can help you retain the essential nutrients, minerals, and, vitamins and shed the unwanted fat and carbs.

Just like the diet, there are several workout plans for obesity which are available. It is upon you to find out which of the workout plan seems to be apt for you. Choose cardio exercises and dance routines like Zumba to shed the unwanted body weight. Yoga is yet another method to get rid of obesity.

So, follow a blend of these and you will be able to deal with the trouble of obesity in no time. We believe that following these tips will help you get rid of obesity and stay in shape.

Obesity and overweight is a top health concern in the world due to the impact it has on the lives of individuals. Obesity is defined as a condition in which an individual has excessive body fat and is measured using the body mass index (BMI) such that, when an individual’s BMI is above 30, he or she is termed obese. The BMI is calculated using body weight and height and it is different for all individuals.

Obesity has been determined as a risk factor for many diseases. It results from dietary habits, genetics, and lifestyle habits including physical inactivity. Obesity can be prevented so that individuals do not end up having serious complications and health problems. Chronic illnesses like diabetes, heart diseases and relate to obesity in terms of causes and complications.

Factors Influencing Obesity:

Obesity is not only as a result of lifestyle habits as most people put it. There are other important factors that influence obesity. Genetics is one of those factors. A person could be born with genes that predispose them to obesity and they will also have difficulty in losing weight because it is an inborn factor.

The environment also influences obesity because the diet is similar in certain environs. In certain environments, like school, the food available is fast foods and the chances of getting healthy foods is very low, leading to obesity. Also, physical inactivity is an environmental factor for obesity because some places have no fields or tracks where people can jog or maybe the place is very unsafe and people rarely go out to exercise.

Mental health affects the eating habits of individuals. There is a habit of stress eating when a person is depressed and it could result in overweight or obesity if the person remains unhealthy for long period of time.

The overall health of individuals also matter. If a person is unwell and is prescribed with steroids, they may end up being obese. Steroidal medications enable weight gain as a side effect.

Complications of Obesity:

Obesity is a health concern because its complications are severe. Significant social and health problems are experienced by obese people. Socially, they will be bullied and their self-esteem will be low as they will perceive themselves as unworthy.

Chronic illnesses like diabetes results from obesity. Diabetes type 2 has been directly linked to obesity. This condition involves the increased blood sugars in the body and body cells are not responding to insulin as they should. The insulin in the body could also be inadequate due to decreased production. High blood sugar concentrations result in symptoms like frequent hunger, thirst and urination. The symptoms of complicated stages of diabetes type 2 include loss of vision, renal failure and heart failure and eventually death. The importance of having a normal BMI is the ability of the body to control blood sugars.

Another complication is the heightened blood pressures. Obesity has been defined as excessive body fat. The body fat accumulates in blood vessels making them narrow. Narrow blood vessels cause the blood pressures to rise. Increased blood pressure causes the heart to start failing in its physiological functions. Heart failure is the end result in this condition of increased blood pressures.

There is a significant increase in cholesterol in blood of people who are obese. High blood cholesterol levels causes the deposition of fats in various parts of the body and organs. Deposition of fats in the heart and blood vessels result in heart diseases. There are other conditions that result from hypercholesterolemia.

Other chronic illnesses like cancer can also arise from obesity because inflammation of body cells and tissues occurs in order to store fats in obese people. This could result in abnormal growths and alteration of cell morphology. The abnormal growths could be cancerous.

Management of Obesity:

For the people at risk of developing obesity, prevention methods can be implemented. Prevention included a healthy diet and physical activity. The diet and physical activity patterns should be regular and realizable to avoid strains that could result in complications.

Some risk factors for obesity are non-modifiable for example genetics. When a person in genetically predisposed, the lifestyle modifications may be have help.

For the individuals who are already obese, they can work on weight reduction through healthy diets and physical exercises.

In conclusion, obesity is indeed a major health concern because the health complications are very serious. Factors influencing obesity are both modifiable and non-modifiable. The management of obesity revolves around diet and physical activity and so it is important to remain fit.

In olden days, obesity used to affect only adults. However, in the present time, obesity has become a worldwide problem that hits the kids as well. Let’s find out the most prevalent causes of obesity.

Factors Causing Obesity:

Obesity can be due to genetic factors. If a person’s family has a history of obesity, chances are high that he/ she would also be affected by obesity, sooner or later in life.

The second reason is having a poor lifestyle. Now, there are a variety of factors that fall under the category of poor lifestyle. An excessive diet, i.e., eating more than you need is a definite way to attain the stage of obesity. Needless to say, the extra calories are changed into fat and cause obesity.

Junk foods, fried foods, refined foods with high fats and sugar are also responsible for causing obesity in both adults and kids. Lack of physical activity prevents the burning of extra calories, again, leading us all to the path of obesity.

But sometimes, there may also be some indirect causes of obesity. The secondary reasons could be related to our mental and psychological health. Depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional troubles are well-known factors of obesity.

Physical ailments such as hypothyroidism, ovarian cysts, and diabetes often complicate the physical condition and play a massive role in abnormal weight gain.

Moreover, certain medications, such as steroids, antidepressants, and contraceptive pills, have been seen interfering with the metabolic activities of the body. As a result, the long-term use of such drugs can cause obesity. Adding to that, regular consumption of alcohol and smoking are also connected to the condition of obesity.

Harmful Effects of Obesity:

On the surface, obesity may look like a single problem. But, in reality, it is the mother of several major health issues. Obesity simply means excessive fat depositing into our body including the arteries. The drastic consequence of such high cholesterol levels shows up in the form of heart attacks and other life-threatening cardiac troubles.

The fat deposition also hampers the elasticity of the arteries. That means obesity can cause havoc in our body by altering the blood pressure to an abnormal range. And this is just the tip of the iceberg. Obesity is known to create an endless list of problems.

In extreme cases, this disorder gives birth to acute diseases like diabetes and cancer. The weight gain due to obesity puts a lot of pressure on the bones of the body, especially of the legs. This, in turn, makes our bones weak and disturbs their smooth movement. A person suffering from obesity also has higher chances of developing infertility issues and sleep troubles.

Many obese people are seen to be struggling with breathing problems too. In the chronic form, the condition can grow into asthma. The psychological effects of obesity are another serious topic. You can say that obesity and depression form a loop. The more a person is obese, the worse is his/ her depression stage.

How to Control and Treat Obesity:

The simplest and most effective way, to begin with, is changing our diet. There are two factors to consider in the diet plan. First is what and what not to eat. Second is how much to eat.

If you really want to get rid of obesity, include more and more green vegetables in your diet. Spinach, beans, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, asparagus, etc., have enough vitamins and minerals and quite low calories. Other healthier options are mushrooms, pumpkin, beetroots, and sweet potatoes, etc.

Opt for fresh fruits, especially citrus fruits, and berries. Oranges, grapes, pomegranate, pineapple, cherries, strawberries, lime, and cranberries are good for the body. They have low sugar content and are also helpful in strengthening our immune system. Eating the whole fruits is a more preferable way in comparison to gulping the fruit juices. Fruits, when eaten whole, have more fibers and less sugar.

Consuming a big bowl of salad is also great for dealing with the obesity problem. A salad that includes fibrous foods such as carrots, radish, lettuce, tomatoes, works better at satiating the hunger pangs without the risk of weight gain.

A high protein diet of eggs, fish, lean meats, etc., is an excellent choice to get rid of obesity. Take enough of omega fatty acids. Remember to drink plenty of water. Keeping yourself hydrated is a smart way to avoid overeating. Water also helps in removing the toxins and excess fat from the body.

As much as possible, avoid fats, sugars, refined flours, and oily foods to keep the weight in control. Control your portion size. Replace the three heavy meals with small and frequent meals during the day. Snacking on sugarless smoothies, dry fruits, etc., is much recommended.

Regular exercise plays an indispensable role in tackling the obesity problem. Whenever possible, walk to the market, take stairs instead of a lift. Physical activity can be in any other form. It could be a favorite hobby like swimming, cycling, lawn tennis, or light jogging.

Meditation and yoga are quite powerful practices to drive away the stress, depression and thus, obesity. But in more serious cases, meeting a physician is the most appropriate strategy. Sometimes, the right medicines and surgical procedures are necessary to control the health condition.

Obesity is spreading like an epidemic, haunting both the adults and the kids. Although genetic factors and other physical ailments play a role, the problem is mostly caused by a reckless lifestyle.

By changing our way of living, we can surely take control of our health. In other words, it would be possible to eliminate the condition of obesity from our lives completely by leading a healthy lifestyle.

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Essays About Obesity: Top 5 Examples and 7 Writing Prompts

Obesity is a pressing health issue many people must deal with in their lives. If you are writing essays about obesity, check out our guide for helpful examples and writing prompts. 

In the world we live in today, certain diseases such as obesity are becoming more significant problems. People suffering from obesity have excess fat, which threatens their health significantly. This can lead to strokes, high blood pressure, heart attacks, and even death. It also dramatically alters one’s physical appearance.

However, we must not be so quick to judge and criticize obese people for their weight and supposed “lifestyle choices.” Not every obese person makes “bad choices” and is automatically “lazy,” as various contributing causes exist. Therefore, we must balance concern for obese people’s health and outright shaming them. 

To write insightful essays about obesity, you can start by reading essay examples. 

5 Best Essay examples

1. obesity as a social issue by earnest washington, 2. is there such a thing as ‘healthy obesity’ by gillian mohney, 3. problems of child obesity by peggy maldonado, 4.  what is fat shaming are you a shamer by jamie long.

• 5. ​​The Dangerous Link Between Coronavirus and Obesity by Rami Bailony

Writing Prompts for Essays About Obesity

1. what causes obesity, 2. what are the effects of obesity, 3. how can you prevent obesity, 4. what is “fat shaming”, 5. why is obesity rate so higher, 6. obesity in the united states, 7. your experience with obesity.

“Weight must be considered as a genuine risk in today’s world. Other than social issues like body shaming, obesity has significantly more to it and is a risk to human life. It must be dealt with and taken care of simply like some other interminable illness and we as people must recollect that machines and innovation has progressed to help us not however not make us unenergetic.”

Washington writes about the dangers of obesity, saying that it can significantly damage your digestive and cardiovascular systems and even cause cancer. In addition, humans’ “expanded reliance on machines” has led us to become less active and more sedentary; as a result, we keep getting fatter. While he acknowledges that shaming obese people does no good, Washington stresses the dangers of being too heavy and encourages people to get fit. 

“‘I think we need to move away from using BMI as categorizing one as obese/overweight or unhealthy,” Zarabi told Healthline. “The real debate here is how do we define health? Is the vegetarian who has a BMI of 30, avoiding all saturated fats from meats and consuming a diet heavy in simple carbohydrates [and thus] reducing his risk of cardiac disease but increasing likelihood of elevated triglycerides and insulin, considered healthy?

Mohney, writing for Healthline, explains how “healthy obesity” is nuanced and should perhaps be retired. Some people may be metabolically healthy and obese simultaneously; however, they are still at risk of diseases associated with obesity. Others believe that health should be determined by more factors than BMI, as some people eat healthily and exercise but remain heavy. People have conflicting opinions on this term, and Mohney describes suggestions to instead focus on getting treatment for “healthy obese” people

“The absence of physical movement is turning into an increasingly normal factor as youngsters are investing more energy inside, and less time outside. Since technology is turning into an immense piece of present-day youngsters’ lives, exercises, for example, watching TV, gaming, messaging and playing on the PC, all of which require next to no vitality and replaces the physical exercises.”

In her essay, Maldonado discusses the causes and effects of childhood obesity. For example, hereditary factors and lack of physical activity make more children overweight; also, high-calorie food and the pressure on kids to “finish their food” make them consume more. 

Obesity leads to high blood pressure and cholesterol, heart disease, and cancer; children should not suffer as they are still so young. 

“Regardless of the catalyst at the root of fat shaming, it persists quite simply because we as a society aren’t doing enough to call it out and stand in solidarity against it. Our culture has largely bought into the farce that thinness equals health and success. Instead, the emphasis needs to shift from the obsession of appearance to promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors for all, regardless of body size. A lean body shouldn’t be a requisite to be treated with dignity and respect. Fat shaming is nonsensical and is the manifestation of ignorance and possibly, hate.”

Long warns readers of the dangers of fat shaming, declaring that it is reprehensible and should not be done. People may have “good intentions” when criticizing overweight or obese people, but it does not, in fact, help with making them healthier. Long believes that society should highlight a healthy lifestyle rather than a “healthy” body, as everyone’s bodies are different and should not be the sole indicator of health. 

5. ​​ The Dangerous Link Between Coronavirus and Obesity by Rami Bailony

“In a study out of NYU, severe obesity (BMI >40) was a greater risk factor for hospitalization among Covid-19 patients than heart failure, smoking status, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. In China, in a small case series of critically ill Covid-19 patients, 88.24% of patients who died had obesity versus an obesity rate of 18.95% in survivors. In France, patients with a BMI greater than 35 were seven times more likely to require mechanical ventilation than patients with a BMI below 25.”

Bailony’s essay sheds light on research conducted in several countries regarding obesity and COVID-19. The disease is said to be “a leading risk factor in mortality and morbidity” from the virus; studies conducted in the U.S., China, and France show that most obese people who contracted the coronavirus died. Bailony believes obesity is not taken seriously enough and should be treated as an actual disease rather than a mere “lifestyle choice.”

It is well-known that obesity is an excess buildup of body fat, but what exactly causes this? It is not simply due to “eating a lot,” as many people simply understand it; there are other factors besides diet that affect someone’s body size. Look into the different causes of obesity, explaining each and how they are connected.

Obesity can result in the development of many diseases. In addition, it can significantly affect one’s physique and digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems. For your essay, discuss the different symptoms of obesity and the health complications it can lead to in the future.

It can be safely assumed that no one wants to be obese, as it is detrimental to one’s health. Write an essay guide of some sort, giving tips on managing your weight, staying healthy, and preventing obesity. Include some dietary guidelines, exercise suggestions, and the importance of keeping the balance between these two.

“Fat shaming” is a phenomenon that has become more popular with the rise in obesity rates. Define this term, explain how it is seen in society, and explain why it is terrible. Also, include ways that you can speak about the dangers of obesity without making fun of obese people or making them feel bad for their current state. 

The 21st century has seen a dramatic rise in obesity rates worldwide compared to previous decades. Why is this the case? Explore one or more probable causes for the increase in obese people. You should mention multiple causes in your essay, but you may choose to focus on one only- explain it in detail.

The United States, in particular, is known to be a country with many obese people. This is due to a combination of factors, all connected in some way. Research obesity in the U.S. and write about why it is a bigger problem than in other countries- take a look at portion size, fitness habits, and food production. 

If applicable, you may write about your experience with obesity. Whether you have struggled or are struggling with it in the past or know someone who has, discuss how this makes you feel. Reflect on how this knowledge has impacted you as a person and any lessons this may have taught you. 

For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers .If you’re looking for more ideas, check out our essays about bullying topic guide !

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Obesity Essay

Last updated on: Feb 9, 2023

Obesity Essay: A Complete Guide and Topics

By: Nova A.

11 min read

Reviewed By: Jacklyn H.

Published on: Aug 31, 2021

Are you assigned to write an essay about obesity? The first step is to define obesity.

The obesity epidemic is a major issue facing our country right now. It's complicated- it could be genetic or due to your environment, but either way, there are ways that you can fix it!

Learn all about what causes weight gain and get tips on how you can get healthy again.

On this Page

What is Obesity

What is obesity? Obesity and BMI (body mass index) are both tools of measurement that are used by doctors to assess body fat according to the height, age, and gender of a person. If the BMI is between 25 to 29.9, that means the person has excess weight and body fat.

If the BMI exceeds 30, that means the person is obese. Obesity is a condition that increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, and other medical conditions like metabolic syndrome, arthritis, and even some types of cancer.

Obesity Definition

Obesity is defined by the World Health Organization as an accumulation of abnormal and excess body fat that comes with several risk factors. It is measured by the body mass index BMI, body weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of a person’s height (in meters).

Obesity in America

Obesity is on the verge of becoming an epidemic as 1 in every 3 Americans can be categorized as overweight and obese. Currently, America is an obese country, and it continues to get worse.

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Causes of obesity

Do you see any obese or overweight people around you?

You likely do.

This is because fast-food chains are becoming more and more common, people are less active, and fruits and vegetables are more expensive than processed foods, thus making them less available to the majority of society. These are the primary causes of obesity.

Obesity is a disease that affects all age groups, including children and elderly people.

Now that you are familiar with the topic of obesity, writing an essay won’t be that difficult for you.

How to Write an Obesity Essay

The format of an obesity essay is similar to writing any other essay. If you need help regarding how to write an obesity essay, it is the same as writing any other essay.

Obesity Essay Introduction

The trick is to start your essay with an interesting and catchy sentence. This will help attract the reader's attention and motivate them to read further. You don’t want to lose the reader’s interest in the beginning and leave a bad impression, especially if the reader is your teacher.

A hook sentence is usually used to open the introductory paragraph of an essay in order to make it interesting. When writing an essay on obesity, the hook sentence can be in the form of an interesting fact or statistic.

Head on to this detailed article on hook examples to get a better idea.

Once you have hooked the reader, the next step is to provide them with relevant background information about the topic. Don’t give away too much at this stage or bombard them with excess information that the reader ends up getting bored with. Only share information that is necessary for the reader to understand your topic.

Next, write a strong thesis statement at the end of your essay, be sure that your thesis identifies the purpose of your essay in a clear and concise manner. Also, keep in mind that the thesis statement should be easy to justify as the body of your essay will revolve around it.

Body Paragraphs

The details related to your topic are to be included in the body paragraphs of your essay. You can use statistics, facts, and figures related to obesity to reinforce your thesis throughout your essay.

If you are writing a cause-and-effect obesity essay, you can mention different causes of obesity and how it can affect a person’s overall health. The number of body paragraphs can increase depending on the parameters of the assignment as set forth by your instructor.

Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence that is the crux of its content. It is necessary to write an engaging topic sentence as it helps grab the reader’s interest. Check out this detailed blog on writing a topic sentence to further understand it.

End your essay with a conclusion by restating your research and tying it to your thesis statement. You can also propose possible solutions to control obesity in your conclusion. Make sure that your conclusion is short yet powerful.

Obesity Essay Examples

Essay about Obesity (PDF)

Childhood Obesity Essay (PDF)

Obesity in America Essay (PDF)

Essay about Obesity Cause and Effects (PDF)

Satire Essay on Obesity (PDF) 

Obesity Argumentative Essay (PDF)

Obesity Essay Topics

Choosing a topic might seem an overwhelming task as you may have many ideas for your assignment. Brainstorm different ideas and narrow them down to one, quality topic.

If you need some examples to help you with your essay topic related to obesity, dive into this article and choose from the list of obesity essay topics.

Childhood Obesity

As mentioned earlier, obesity can affect any age group, including children. Obesity can cause several future health problems as children age.

Here are a few topics you can choose from and discuss for your childhood obesity essay:

• What are the causes of increasing obesity in children?
• Obese parents may be at risk for having children with obesity.
• What is the ratio of obesity between adults and children?
• What are the possible treatments for obese children?
• Are there any social programs that can help children with combating obesity?
• Has technology boosted the rate of obesity in children?
• Are children spending more time on gadgets instead of playing outside?
• Schools should encourage regular exercises and sports for children.
• How can sports and other physical activities protect children from becoming obese?
• Can childhood abuse be a cause of obesity among children?
• What is the relationship between neglect in childhood and obesity in adulthood?
• Does obesity have any effect on the psychological condition and well-being of a child?
• Are electronic medical records effective in diagnosing obesity among children?
• Obesity can affect the academic performance of your child.
• Do you believe that children who are raised by a single parent can be vulnerable to obesity?
• You can promote interesting exercises to encourage children.
• What is the main cause of obesity, and why is it increasing with every passing day?
• Schools and colleges should work harder to develop methodologies to decrease childhood obesity.
• The government should not allow schools and colleges to include sweet or fatty snacks as a part of their lunch.
• If a mother is obese, can it affect the health of the child?
• Children who gain weight frequently can develop chronic diseases.

Obesity Argumentative Essay Topics

Do you want to write an argumentative essay on the topic of obesity?

The following list can help you with that!

Here are some examples you can choose from for your argumentative essay about obesity:

• Can vegetables and fruits decrease the chances of obesity?
• Should you go for surgery to overcome obesity?
• Are there any harmful side effects?
• Can obesity be related to the mental condition of an individual?
• Are parents responsible for controlling obesity in childhood?
• What are the most effective measures to prevent the increase in the obesity rate?
• Why is the obesity rate increasing in the United States?
• Can the lifestyle of a person be a cause of obesity?
• Does the economic situation of a country affect the obesity rate?
• How is obesity considered an international health issue?
• Can technology and gadgets affect obesity rates?
• What can be the possible reasons for obesity in a school?
• How can we address the issue of obesity?
• Is obesity a chronic disease?
• Is obesity a major cause of heart attacks?
• Are the junk food chains causing an increase in obesity?
• Do nutritional programs help in reducing the obesity rate?
• How can the right type of diet help with obesity?
• Why should we encourage sports activities in schools and colleges?
• Can obesity affect a person’s behavior?

Health Related Topics for Research Paper

If you are writing a research paper, you can explain the cause and effect of obesity.

Here are a few topics that link to the cause and effects of obesity.Review the literature of previous articles related to obesity. Describe the ideas presented in the previous papers.

• Can family history cause obesity in future generations?
• Can we predict obesity through genetic testing?
• What is the cause of the increasing obesity rate?
• Do you think the increase in fast-food restaurants is a cause of the rising obesity rate?
• Is the ratio of obese women greater than obese men?
• Why are women more prone to be obese as compared to men?
• Stress can be a cause of obesity. Mention the reasons how mental health can be related to physical health.
• Is urban life a cause of the increasing obesity rate?
• People from cities are prone to be obese as compared to people from the countryside.
• How obesity affects the life expectancy of people? What are possible solutions to decrease the obesity rate?
• Do family eating habits affect or trigger obesity?
• How do eating habits affect the health of an individual?
• How can obesity affect the future of a child?
• Obese children are more prone to get bullied in high school and college.
• Why should schools encourage more sports and exercise for children?

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Topics for Essay on Obesity as a Problem

Do you think a rise in obesity rate can affect the economy of a country?

Here are some topics for your assistance regarding your economics related obesity essay.

• Does socioeconomic status affect the possibility of obesity in an individual?
• Analyze the film and write a review on “Fed Up” – an obesity epidemic.
• Share your reviews on the movie “The Weight of The Nation.”
• Should we increase the prices of fast food and decrease the prices of fruits and vegetables to decrease obesity?
• Do you think healthy food prices can be a cause of obesity?
• Describe what measures other countries have taken in order to control obesity?
• The government should play an important role in controlling obesity. What precautions should they take?
• Do you think obesity can be one of the reasons children get bullied?
• Do obese people experience any sort of discrimination or inappropriate behavior due to their weight?
• Are there any legal protections for people who suffer from discrimination due to their weight?
• Which communities have a higher percentage of obesity in the United States?
• Discuss the side effects of the fast-food industry and their advertisements on children.
• Describe how the increasing obesity rate has affected the economic condition of the United States.
• What is the current percentage of obesity all over the world? Is the obesity rate increasing with every passing day?
• Why is the obesity rate higher in the United States as compared to other countries?
• Do Asians have a greater percentage of obese people as compared to Europe?
• Does the cultural difference affect the eating habits of an individual?
• Obesity and body shaming.
• Why is a skinny body considered to be ideal? Is it an effective way to reduce the obesity rate?

Obesity Solution Essay Topics

With all the developments in medicine and technology, we still don’t have exact measures to treat obesity.

Here are some insights you can discuss in your essay:

• How do obese people suffer from metabolic complications?
• Describe the fat distribution in obese people.
• Is type 2 diabetes related to obesity?
• Are obese people more prone to suffer from diabetes in the future?
• How are cardiac diseases related to obesity?
• Can obesity affect a woman’s childbearing time phase?
• Describe the digestive diseases related to obesity.
• Obesity may be genetic.
• Obesity can cause a higher risk of suffering a heart attack.
• What are the causes of obesity? What health problems can be caused if an individual suffers from obesity?
• What are the side effects of surgery to overcome obesity?
• Which drugs are effective when it comes to the treatment of obesity?
• Is there a difference between being obese and overweight?
• Can obesity affect the sociological perspective of an individual?
• Explain how an obesity treatment works.
• How can the government help people to lose weight and improve public health?

Writing an essay is a challenging yet rewarding task. All you need is to be organized and clear when it comes to academic writing.

• Choose a topic you would like to write on.
• Organize your thoughts.
• Pen down your ideas.
• Compose a perfect essay that will help you ace your subject.
• Proofread and revise your paper.

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Essay on Obesity

Introduction

Obesity is a health condition that frequently develops when an individual’s weight is out of proportion to their height and age. It is critical to help obese individuals with their lifestyle choices, as they are frequently abused and ignored emotionally and physically by family members and friends. Additionally, obesity rates are increasing, and obesity can frequently obstruct individuals’ growth and even result in significant psychological issues resulting from continual criticism and rejection (Psalios, 2020). Obesity has long been a source of contention among psychologists, sociologists, and dietitians worldwide. Numerous factors have been and continue to be studied from a practical and theoretical standpoint, including race, heredity, behavior, environment, gender, and other socioeconomic circumstances. Nevertheless, obesity remains a hot subject nowadays, and in some situations, the causes and consequences of obesity are complex and difficult to decipher.

Risk of health problems related to obesity

People have not been sufficiently informed about the high addictiveness of food and associated health risks. Individuals increasingly lack knowledge about their condition, critical lifestyle changes, and critical self-management skills. In any event, it should be noted that obesity is a significant issue, which impacts the individual and the community, and society as a whole. However, when individuals are obese, they might jeopardize the future of every person involved.

Obesity is a result of an individual’s genetics, upbringing, and socioeconomic situation and may dramatically influence individuals’ general health and wellness. It is commonly defined by a 30percent excess of body fat over an individual’s optimum age and height. However, there are numerous factors, which contribute to an individual being overweight. One of the primary reasons an individual may struggle with their weight is that they are genetically prone and at a higher risk of being overweight or having other severe illnesses and diseases due to a biological family member carrying the gene. Genetic factors and human hormones contribute significantly to the genesis of obesity (Qasim et al., 2018).

Individuals assume they can prevent or reverse obesity before it causes health concerns. The fact is that most individuals would be unable to overcome obesity, and nearly half may die as a result of obesity-related diseases. Most obese individuals are unaware that obesity also causes difficulty in breathing, early symptoms of cardiac disease, disturbed sleep patterns, surgical complications, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and type II diabetes. Obesity may also cause high blood pressure. Individuals who are overweight are more likely to get high blood pressure. The cause is high blood fat content (triglycerides) and low HDL good cholesterol in the blood of obese persons. Triglycerides can cause blood vessels to clog quickly. When the space of the blood vessels has narrowed, then the pressure in them will increase.

Obese people have a higher risk of various types of cancer, such as endometrial cancer, namely cancer of the lining of the colon, uterus, kidney, prostate, gall bladder, and post-menopausal and breast cancer. In addition, for every 2-pound increase in weight, the risk of developing arthritis is increased by 9 to 13%. Knowing that arthritis can be increased with weight loss is prevalent for the betterment of the individual.

Obesity can harm the knees and hips because the extra weight puts strain on the joints. While joint replacement surgery is commonly performed on injured joints, the artificial joint has a higher risk of slackening and causing more damage. The effects of Obesity could also raise the risk of vitamin deficiencies (vitamin B12) that can lead to bone and joint issues (like sliding bow legs and femoral epiphysis) and other mental illnesses like low self-esteem and depression (Thomas-Valdés et al., 2017).

Obesity can also contribute to poor mental well-being, social discrimination, unfavorable peer/adult relationships, high-risk behavior (use of alcohol/drug), decreased hopes for a promising future, and being misinterpreted by relatives. A person who is obese also impacts unstable emotions and often considers himself unattractive, lacks self-confidence, and suffers from depression or stress due to not being able to face a normal and active life like other individuals. Most obese people generally lack self-confidence due to their physical appearance. They continuously compare themselves against individuals with healthier figures, negatively affecting their daily lives, work performance, and social interactions.

Considering obesity impacts every organ system in the body, it may reduce life span by 2 to 5 years (Wilhelmi de Toledo et al., 2020).In addition, obesity also affects mental health. These mental effects have not been extensively studied as side effects of physical obesity. Nevertheless, evidence shows that negative obesity can also affect mental health. Feelings of inferiority are common among people whose obesity persists. Rates of depression and anxiety are more alarming because a study in Sweden found that individuals who are severely obese are three to four times more likely to exhibit signs of depression and anxiety than those with an ideal weight.

During pregnancy, obesity is connected with a higher death risk in both the mother and the baby and an increase in the risk of maternal high blood pressure (Catalano & Shankar, 2017). Women who are obese during pregnancy are likely to develop gestational diabetes and issues with labor and delivery, among other concerns. Obesity and overweight are linked to an increased risk of gallbladder disease, surgical risk, incontinence, and depression. Obesity can reduce a person’s quality of life by limiting mobility and physical strength through social, academic, and work discrimination. Also, they are obese, barriers to the quality of life, and emotional consequences seen in this disease. All these negative attributes of such disease are reduced if they were to occur to better the person.

Obesity is sometimes misunderstood as a personal issue. Even though many aspects overlap, experts appear to concur that obesity is a highly complex issue. In addition to knowing the causes of obesity, it is critical to consider ways to avoid obesity and how the community could support and assist in rehabilitating those who have such a condition. In order to combat obesity, society should employ a combination of prevention, intervention, and suppression methods. In order to be efficient, obesity prevention efforts should involve not just a healthy diet, regular exercise, and instilling good habits in everyone, but also a wide range of management tools, possible medicines, and other therapies.

Psalios, S. (2020).  Collateral Damage of the ‘War on Obesity’: The Australian Anti-Obesity Campaign: From Fat Stigma to Eating Disorders  (Doctoral dissertation, La Trobe).

Qasim, A., Turcotte, M., De Souza, R. J., Samaan, M. C., Champredon, D., Dushoff, J., … & Meyre, D. (2018). On the origin of obesity: identifying the biological, environmental and cultural drivers of genetic risk among human populations.  Obesity reviews ,  19 (2), 121-149.

Thomas-Valdés, S., Tostes, M. D. G. V., Anunciação, P. C., da Silva, B. P., & Sant’Ana, H. M. P. (2017). Association between vitamin deficiency and metabolic disorders related to obesity.  Critical reviews in food science and nutrition ,  57 (15), 3332-3343.

Wilhelmi de Toledo, F., Grundler, F., Sirtori, C. R., & Ruscica, M. (2020). Unravelling the health effects of fasting: a long road from obesity treatment to healthy life span increase and improved cognition.  Annals of Medicine ,  52 (5), 147-161.

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26 Conclusion: Obesity and its prevention in the 21st century

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The case for a preventative approach to the obesity epidemic is compelling. Obesity poses what is arguably one of the most significant threats to population health that is currently faced. The data presented in this book highlight just how common obesity has become in children and in adults across the globe, and how it impacts disproportionately on the poor. This chapter presents a summary of the discussions in the preceding chapters.

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Obesity — Obesity in America

Obesity in America

• Categories: Childhood Obesity Obesity

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Words: 704 |

Published: Jan 30, 2024

Words: 704 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, historical context and causes of obesity, health impacts of obesity, economic and social impacts of obesity, government policies and interventions, role of education and media in addressing obesity.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, June 29). Adult Obesity Facts. https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html
• Alpert, J. (2018, July 18). The Policy and Politics of Obesity Prevention. Health Affairs. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20180712.613083/full/
• Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Hall, K. D., McPherson, K., Finegood, D. T., Moodie, M. L., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2011). The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. The Lancet, 378(9793), 804-814. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1
• Cohen, D. A., & Babey, S. H. (2012). Contextual influences on eating behaviours: heuristic processing and dietary choices. Obesity Reviews, 13(9), 766-779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01001.x

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Obesity Stigma: Causes, Consequences, and Potential Solutions

Susannah westbury.

1 School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC Australia

Oyinlola Oyebode

2 Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

Thijs van Rens

3 Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

Thomas M. Barber

4 Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

Purpose of Review

This review aims to examine (i) the aetiology of obesity; (ii) how and why a perception of personal responsibility for obesity so dominantly frames this condition and how this mindset leads to stigma; (iii) the consequences of obesity stigma for people living with obesity, and for the public support for interventions to prevent and manage this condition; and (iv) potential strategies to diminish our focus on personal responsibility for the development of obesity, to enable a reduction of obesity stigma, and to move towards effective interventions to prevent and manage obesity within the population.

Recent Findings

We summarise literature which shows that obesity stems from a complex interplay of genetic and environment factors most of which are outside an individual’s control. Despite this, evidence of obesity stigmatisation remains abundant throughout areas of media, entertainment, social media and the internet, advertising, news outlets, and the political and public health landscape. This has damaging consequences including psychological, physical, and socioeconomic harm.

Obesity stigma does not prevent obesity. A combined, concerted, and sustained effort from multiple stakeholders and key decision-makers within society is required to dispel myths around personal responsibility for body weight, and to foster more empathy for people living in larger bodies. This also sets the scene for more effective policies and interventions, targeting the social and environmental drivers of health, to ultimately improve population health.

Introduction

Obesity is defined by The World Health Organisation as “ abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health ” [ 1 ]. The prevalence of obesity has risen exponentially over the last 50 years and is now so widespread that many have announced a state of obesity pandemic [ 2 , 3 ]. In 2016, WHO estimated that globally, over 1.9 billion adults were overweight, including more than 650 million adults with obesity [ 1 ].

Obesity is a chronic relapsing disease characterised by an inflammatory state and associated with significant mortality and morbidity [ 4 ]. There are > 50 obesity-related conditions that include metabolic dysfunction (type 2 diabetes, hypertension, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovary syndrome, and cardiovascular disease), mood disorders (depression and anxiety), dementia, joint problems (osteoarthritis), chronic kidney disease, obstructive sleep apnoea, and at least thirteen types of cancer [ 5 – 8 ]. Furthermore, obesity confers a substantial burden on psychological and psychosocial functioning, and has profound consequences on global health economic expenditure [ 9 ].

Obesity stigma is characterised by prejudiced, stereotyped, and discriminatory views and actions towards people with obesity, often fuelled by inaccurate ideas about the causes of obesity [ 9 ]. Despite decades of research supporting the dominant influence of genetic and environmental factors in the development of obesity, in the public consciousness, obesity continues to be viewed as a result of individual-level decision-making. This misperception leads to harmful assumptions about the lifestyles and characters of people with obesity. Such ensuing obesity stigma permeates our current sociocultural and political landscape and has severe consequences for people living with obesity, including worsened mental health [ 10 •], increased mortality and morbidity [ 11 , 12 ], and poor healthcare provision [ 13 ]. Furthermore, a narrative of personal responsibility for obesity development orientates individual-level interventions that are naïve to the reality of underlying genetic and environmental causes of obesity, that in turn receive inadequate attention and support.

Herein, we describe our current understanding of the aetiology of obesity and provide an overview of the evidence base for the impact of genetic and environmental factors. We examine the pervading focus on personal responsibility for obesity development and how this mindset leads to stigma; we explore the widespread and far-reaching consequences of obesity stigma. Finally, we conclude by reviewing promising potential strategies that would reframe obesity within the public consciousness and facilitate more effective and evidence-based interventions to improve both the prevention and management of obesity.

Aetiology of Obesity

Our best current explanation for the global rise in the prevalence of obesity over recent decades promotes complex interactions between underlying genetic predisposition and our environment [ 14 ]. In essence, obesity results from a sustained positive energy balance in which excess calories are consumed, exceeding those that are expended [ 8 ]. It should be noted that this traditional view of the pathophysiology of obesity development is almost certainly an over-simplification, with important roles for hypothalamic regulation of appetite and energy expenditure, the effects of sugar consumption on such regulation (including both insulin and leptin resistance), and the complex interplay between such appetite and metabolism regulating pathways and the gut (including gut peptides, the autonomic nervous system, and the gut microbiota) [ 8 ]. These complex mechanisms, and the myriad ways in which our genes interact with environmental factors to influence body weight, remain incompletely understood [ 8 ].

Our brains and bodies are programmed to tightly regulate energy balance through both metabolic and hormonal systems that control appetite and satiety [ 8 , 15 ]. For our ancestors, fat storage was necessary for survival, likely favouring gene variants that led to weight gain rather than weight loss [ 8 , 16 ]. Key insights into such appetite-regulating genes stem from studies on single gene defects that strongly associate with obesity, including those in key genes such as proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) [ 17 ] phenotypically characterised by intractable hunger and the development of severe obesity from an early age. However, such monogenic defects only affect a tiny proportion of the population with obesity, and cannot explain the recent global rise of obesity [ 16 , 17 ].

Given that obesity is a heritable condition and monogenic gene defects only affect a small minority of people, it is important to consider the origin of the heritability of obesity [ 18 ]. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) reveal common polygenic gene variants, for example in the fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene region, that are associated with changes in fat mass and contribute towards the development of obesity [ 19 ]. However, even considering polygenic effects, these account for only ~ 3% of the heritability of obesity [ 20 ], whilst twin studies show that the real heritability potential of obesity is somewhere between 40 and 70% [ 21 ]. One explanation for the missing heritability stems from epigenetic and epigenomic factors, in which the expression of genes through transcription and translation is influenced through DNA methylation and histone modification. Such modifications to the DNA molecule are influenced heavily by gene–environment interactions, wherein our dietary, physical, in utero, and other environmental exposures activate or silence specific genes, influencing the central control of appetite and metabolism, and ultimately body weight [ 17 , 22 ]. In essence, genetic predisposition to obesity manifests through gene–environmental interactions that underlie the pathophysiology of obesity.

In our evolutionary environment, caloric-restriction combined with a need for large amounts of physical activity (for example in the pursuit of prey, and to gather plant-based foods) a genetic predisposition for preserved body fat through appetitive and metabolic mechanisms would have been an advantage, benefitting those individuals and improving their survival (and reproductive) prospects during times of famine and other environmental threats [ 23 ]. In our modern-day obesogenic environments, such genetic predisposition for the preservation and deposition of fat within adipose tissue that so helped our evolutionary ancestors poses a great threat for modern-day hominids. In short, we are genetically maladapted to our modern-day environment [ 23 ].

Human biology helps to explain why we are seemingly so susceptible to environmental changes. Physiological processes regulating energy balance limit the extent to which individuals can “override” internal homeostatic systems and drivers to control their own body weight [ 24 ]. GWAS show that gene variants associated with BMI and food intake are mostly expressed in the central nervous system, particularly within the hypothalamus, and are therefore beyond conscious control [ 14 ] . In our obesogenic environment that promotes the desirability and availability of energy-dense food, combined with our modern-day society and culture that places so much emphasis on food and eating, it is exceedingly difficult for many individuals to defy the many automatic (including social, hedonic, and habitual) reflexes to eat, particularly when these are subconscious [ 24 ]. As put by Cohen et al., “ people have limited ability to shape the food environment individually and no ability to control automatic responses to food-related cues that are unconsciously perceived… ” [ 24 ]. This may help to explain the evidence for the difficulty experienced by many of losing and sustaining weight loss over a prolonged period [ 25 , 26 ]. Although there are behaviour changes that individuals can implement to mitigate against weight gain and the development of obesity, at a population level, human weight seems largely at the mercy of our genetic makeup and environment.

Having considered genetic factors in the pathogenesis of obesity, it is important to consider the environmental contributors. The radical changes to our human environment over recent decades have rendered our neighbourhoods and daily lives almost unrecognisable even compared to 50 years ago. The environmental changes that most impact our propensity for weight gain and the development of obesity include those that influence our intake and expenditure of energy.

Physical Activity

The technological revolution over the past 100 years has seen great changes to our physical world, characterised by mechanisation, computerisation, and automation [ 27 ]. Accordingly, there has been an unprecedented reduction in the need for humans to expend energy during the execution of everyday tasks that traditionally required physical exertion, for example, transportation and household chores [ 8 , 28 ]. Trends in the built environment increasingly limit opportunities for physical activity through changes in urban landscape and design, poor neighbourhood walkability, and limited options for public transport [ 29 – 31 ]. Although data from the USA shows the percentage of people engaging in formal exercise (such as running, cycling, and strength training) has remained relatively stable over recent decades [ 28 , 32 ], this accounts for only a small proportion of total daily energy expenditure, which is largely determined by occupation [ 33 ]. Workplace-related activity has steadily declined [ 32 ] alongside the rise of computer-based work-related tasks that involve sitting at a desk, increasing the proportion of the day spent sedentary [ 34 ]. This sedentary time is associated with overweight and obesity as well as insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, and early mortality. Adverse relationships remain even for those who meet public health recommendations for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [ 35 , 36 ]. Other sedentary behaviours such as watching television, video games, and screen-time have increased in popularity, and also appear to promote the overconsumption of food [ 37 ]. In culmination, these trends lead to an overall reduction in energy expenditure.

Global Food System

The global food system has shifted towards food that is increasingly processed, energy-dense, and nutrient-poor [ 27 ]. The “Western diet” is characterised by high levels of sugar and fat, high energy density, and low levels of fibre [ 8 ]. The marketing industry capitalises on human psychology in ways that maximise the efficacy of food promotion [ 27 ]. Further, increased commercial efficiency through mass production of energy-dense and highly processed foods has enabled affordability, whilst fresh and whole food produce such as fruits and vegetables have increased in price [ 38 ] which discourages a healthy diet [ 39 ]. In culmination, these trends have driven a large increase in energy consumption globally [ 40 ]. Between 1976 and 2000, The United States (US) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) measured an increase in daily mean average energy intake of 179 kilocalories (7.3%) for men and 355 kilocalories (23.3%) for women [ 41 ]. This rise in energy intake mostly resulted from increased consumption of carbohydrates and sugary beverages [ 41 , 42 ]. Other contributors to increasing caloric intake included changes to eating patterns, including increased snacking [ 43 ] (resulting primarily from the increased carbohydrate content of highly processed foods and the “rollercoaster” effects on blood sugar levels) and larger meal sizes [ 44 ]. These changes to eating behaviour increase the demand for food and therefore maximise the profits of the food industry [ 45 ]. These important changes in diet and eating behaviours coincided with a dramatic increase in the prevalence of obesity within the US population, which more than doubled from 14.5 to 30.9% in the same timespan [ 41 ].

Similar trends have been observed at different timepoints worldwide. In high-income countries, the transition to a positive energy balance began during the 1970s and 1980s [ 46 ]. A majority of middle-income countries and many low-income countries followed suit, particularly in the context of upward economically mobile populations [ 27 ]. Rapid urbanisation accelerated the rate of obesity prevalence in transitioning low- and middle-income countries, as evidenced by population-based data from Jamaica, Nigeria, and nations of the Pacific Islands. These geographical factors and time-trends affirm the strong impact of local physical and food environments on key behavioural drivers of obesity [ 8 ].

An important epidemiological consideration is that obesity does not affect populations equally, but rather disproportionately impacts underprivileged groups, most exposed to the environmental determinants of obesity, including rural populations, the poor, and minority ethnic groups. Recent findings from the Non-Communicable Disease (NCD) Risk Factor Collaboration [ 47 ] showed that overweight and obesity are greater in rural than urban areas in all high-income countries (HICs). Furthermore, in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the rate of increase of overweight and obesity is greater in rural than in urban settings. Indeed, the expected prevalence of overweight and obesity in rural settings may soon overtake that in urban areas [ 47 , 48 ]. If this disproportionate burden of overweight and obesity in rural populations materialises globally, it will be compounded by additional challenges facing rural areas, including poverty, unemployment, worse healthcare access, lack of access to healthy, nutritious fresh produce, and insufficient public transport and infrastructure to facilitate physical activity [ 49 ].

Poverty has a complex relationship with overweight and obesity that varies according to country, income level, and type of income [ 50 ]. In HICs, obesity rates are highest amongst the poor [ 51 ]. In a large-scale study across the European older adult population, Salmasi and Celidoni showed low household income increased the probability of obesity by 0.146 for both men and women when controlled for key variables [ 52 ]. In contrast, overweight and obesity predominantly affects wealthier demographics in LMIC settings [ 53 ]. However, historical evidence suggests that as countries develop economically, the burden of obesity shifts towards the poorest people [ 51 ]. Unabated, these trends predict that in LMICs over the coming decades, the poorest population groups will experience the greatest rise in the prevalence of overweight and obesity [ 51 ].

In addition to socioeconomic status and wealth vs poverty, ethnic and racial groupings represent another important population-based contributor towards the development of obesity. In the USA between 2001 and 2002, African Americans, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders had an obesity prevalence greater than 30%, whereas Asian Americans had an obesity prevalence of only 4.8% [ 54 ]. These disparities have multivariable and complex causes which are thought to include genetic variation [ 55 , 56 ] as well as ethnic-specific rural location and poverty in addition to differences in healthcare access, social marginalisation, and behaviour [ 57 ]. The weight trajectories of new migrants provide insight into the impact of socioeconomic, sociocultural, and gene–environment interactions. Many migrants to HICs from LMICs arrive with a health advantage which includes healthier body weight than the native population; however, after 10–15 years post-migration, weight gain results in rates of overweight and obesity that often overtake the native population rate [ 58 ]. The influence of ethnic predisposition was highlighted in the Oslo Immigrant Health Study, wherein the prevalence of obesity amongst immigrants varied from 51% (Turkish) to 2.7% (Vietnamese) amongst the population [ 59 ].

Personal Responsibility as a Dominant Explanation for Obesity in Public Discourse

Disease stigma is a social phenomenon that occurs when distinct groups, often those with pre-existing vulnerabilities, are discriminated against on the basis of a medical condition, resulting in stereotyping, labelling, isolation, and reduced status. Ultimately, this results in discrimination [ 60 ]. There is a long and well-documented history of disease stigmatisation in public health history, towards conditions such as cholera, leprosy, tuberculosis, syphilis, drug addiction, mental illness, and perhaps most profoundly in recent memory, HIV/AIDs [ 9 , 61 ].

Obesity stigma is characterised by negative and derogatory ideas about people with obesity. These stereotypes are closely linked to the concept that individuals with obesity are personally responsible for their own weight, despite a wealth of evidence as outlined above, that obesity largely reflects underlying genetic and environmental factors. Accordingly, assumptions are made about the character and behaviours of people with obesity, of being lazy, unhealthy, weak willed, greedy, glutinous and incompetent, and more broadly unclean, immoral, or otherwise defective [ 9 , 62 ]. The result is societal endorsement of stigmatisation and discrimination of obesity that sees people with obesity amongst the last acceptable targets of prejudice, contempt, and ridicule. Current evidence suggests that obesity discrimination has increased exponentially over past decades [ 63 ], to a level that compared with racial discrimination in the USA by the first decade of this century [ 64 ].

Evidence of obesity stigmatisation remains abundant throughout areas of media, entertainment, social media and the internet, advertising, news outlets, and the political and public health landscape. These drivers of obesity stigma are represented in Fig.  1 . Within these domains, we review evidence of messages that affirm both obesity stigma and intertwined narrative of personal responsibility for obesity.

Contributors and consequences of obesity stigma

Entertainment

The entertainment industry reinforces negative stereotypes of people with obesity through negative portrayals and underrepresentation. Characters with overweight and obesity are often portrayed as lonely, clownish, or misfits. Greenberg et al. found that of 1018 popular television show characters, overweight women were less likely to have romantic partners, display physical affection, or be considered attractive. Overweight men were less likely to have romantic partners or even friends and were more often shown eating. Furthermore, the representation of characters with overweight and obesity was less than half of that in the actual population, with only 25% of men and 14% of women having overweight or obesity [ 65 ]. Although Greenberg et al.’s work is now decades old, some of their findings have been repeated more recently [ 66 ]. This underrepresentation is consistent with a large quantity of research [ 62 , 67 – 70 ]. In books and films, obesity is further stigmatised through the association of obesity with the portrayal of “evil” characters, a notable example being the Dursley family in JK Rowling’s Harry Potter series, who were abusive towards Harry throughout his childhood, and frequently filmed from angles that emphasised their weight and during snacking, tea, and biscuit or meal times. Concerningly, weight stigmatisation in television content seems to be particularly prominent in shows targeting adolescents, particularly girls [ 71 ]. Children’s media features frequent negative messages associated with people who have overweight and obesity, who are more often depicted as unattractive, friendless, unkind, and the “bad guy” compared with their normal-weight counterparts [ 67 – 69 ].

Social Media

Social media is a leading source of news media and entertainment in the twenty-first century [ 72 , 73 ]. Chou et al.’s mixed methods analysis of popular social media platforms including Twitter, Facebook, internet blogs, and forums revealed extensive evidence of negative stigmatisation of people with obesity characterised by derogation, exclusion, personal attacks, sexism, and misogyny. Alarmingly, cyberbullying, hostility, and verbal aggression particularly towards women with overweight and obesity were pervasive [ 74 ]. On YouTube, Yoo and Kim found that videos expressing derogatory views towards people with overweight and obesity tend to attract a high number of views, ratings, and viewer interaction. Personal accountability for obesity was a dominant rhetoric on YouTube, correlating with a preponderance of recommendations for changes in personal behaviour [ 75 ].

Advertising

Obesity stigma is also perpetuated within the advertising and marketing industry, including the weight loss industry itself. Obesity has been exploited for economic gain in an industry valued at US $78 billion in the USA alone [ 76 ]. Paid advertisements both on commercial television and online traditionally portray people with overweight and obesity as both unattractive and unhappy, and focus exclusively on personal responsibility for obesity through promoting diet and exercise products [ 63 ]. Advertisers generally cultivate a belief that body weight is controllable through individual efforts and that leanness associates with success in all areas of life [ 77 ].

News and Journalism

The depiction of obesity in the news and journalistic media outlets reinforces the stigmatisation of people with obesity [ 78 ]. McClure et al. showed that images negatively portraying people with obesity, for example depicting unflattering poses or stereotyped actions like eating fast food, promote obesity stigma [ 78 ]. In a study of the British press, Baker et al. showed that there was a doubling in the amount of reporting within newspapers on obesity between 2008 and 2017 [ 79 •]. During this period, there was an increasing emphasis on individual responsibility and reduced focus on the social and political contributors towards obesity [ 79 •]. Chiang et al. demonstrated similar trends across the USA between 2006 and 2015, wherein each year had a greater proportion of articles that discussed individual attribution for obesity compared with either environmental attributions or a mixed model of both individual and environmental attributions [ 80 •]. This misrepresentation of the underlying contributors to the development of obesity reduces the societal perceived responsibility of governments and large corporations to address obesity [ 78 ].

Government, Policy, and Legislation

Political action over the last two decades has galvanised policy and legislation against collective responsibility for the obesity epidemic, consistently enforcing personal responsibility for body weight. The food industry has pushed this framing of personal responsibility in policy debates [ 81 – 84 ]. In 2005, the US Congress proposed a “ Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act ” that served to protect the fast food industry from civil lawsuits resulting from weight gain [ 85 ]. Similar bills and legislations have subsequently been introduced in over 20 US states [ 86 ].

The rhetoric of personal responsibility for obesity is often touted by government officials. Former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair reported that the problem of obesity was “ not, strictly speaking, public health questions at all. They are questions of individual lifestyle…They are the result of millions of individual decisions ” [ 87 ]. Australian member of Parliament Ewen Jones claimed “ It’s not the government’s fault that I’m fat, it’s my fault and I live with the consequences ” [ 88 ].

It is no surprise then that public health campaigns, which are largely funded and guided by political support, often misrepresent obesity as a personal choice. Even when environmental and societal contributors are represented in discussion, solutions to obesity focus on changing individual behaviour in lieu of strategies consistent with the evidence base [ 78 ]. Demonstrative campaign titles include “ Pouring on the Pounds: Don’t Drink Yourself Fat ” [ 89 ] and the UK’s “ Choosing a Better Diet ” and “ Choosing Activity ” campaigns [ 90 ]. These public health efforts to reduce obesity also have stigmatising effects. Despite “positive” intentions, well-publicised campaigns have been called out for reinforcing prevailing negative attitudes towards and stereotypes of people with obesity [ 91 – 94 ]. Specific concerns include an intense focus on body shape and size in the context of an “ideal” body type [ 94 ].

Body Positivity

It is worth mentioning the recent emergence of safe spaces for obesity-related issues and experiences that are free from judgement [ 95 ]. The body positivity and neutrality movements are two phenomena that reject narrow body ideals and focus on self-acceptance and respect for all body sizes [ 96 , 97 ]. These movements seem to be making progress in the representation of people with obesity in the media. Advertising campaigns that promote body acceptance appear to increase self-esteem and mood [ 98 ], and the use of average and plus-sized models tend to reduce body-focussed anxiety and improve body satisfaction of viewers [ 99 ]. Groups within social media and the internet are creating digital spaces where obesity stigma is challenged and people with obesity are included and empowered, having a voice that is rarely represented in the physical world [ 95 , 100 ].

These positive changes may suggest that we are amid a transitional period for the representation of people with obesity within our society. However, progress does not appear to be occurring across all domains, particularly in news, political, and public health media. Furthermore, the examples outlined here reflect a likely minority of trends in the representation of obesity, and obesity stigmatisation continues to appear rife within the public consciousness and lived experience of people with obesity.

Consequences of Obesity Stigma

The damaging effects of obesity stigmatisation are widespread and include psychological, physical, and socioeconomic harm [Fig.  1 ]. Strong evidence supports obesity stigma as an important contributor to poor mental health outcomes for people living with obesity, who are 32% more likely to develop depression compared with their normal-weight counterparts [ 101 ]. A recent large meta-analysis synthesising 105 studies including data on > 59,000 participants found perceived obesity stigma amongst individuals was associated significantly with poorer mental health ( r  =  − 0.35, p  ≤ 0.001), which remained significant following adjustment for relevant variables including body weight [ 10 •]. These data suggest that depression associates with obesity stigmatisation rather than obesity per se. Perceived obesity stigma also had a strong effect on body image dissatisfaction, quality of life, dysfunctional eating, and severity of depression or anxiety symptoms [ 10 •]. There is also evidence that internalised stigma, often referred to as obesity “self-stigma” or “weight bias internalization” (WBI), associates with similar negative mental health outcomes compared with externally based obesity stigma [ 102 ]. A recent meta-analysis by Alimoradi et al. revealed a similar moderate-large effect size for weight-related self-stigma and psychological distress (corrected Fisher’s Z : depression = 0.40; anxiety = 0.36) [ 103 ].

Beyond its severe mental health consequences, obesity stigma is also detrimental to short- and long-term physical health. Counter to traditional public health beliefs that social pressure encourages people with obesity to lose weight [ 25 ], ironically, evidence suggests that obesity stigma actually increases the risk of obesity. Obesity stigma may be associated with increased difficulty of losing weight and medication non-adherence and people with obesity may exclude themselves from some exercise settings [ 102 , 104 ]. Pearl and Puhl’s systematic review found that obesity self-stigma is associated with worse dietary adherence and reduced motivation and self-efficacy to complete health-promoting behaviours [ 105 •]. Unlike other public health issues addressing social norms, such as tobacco smoking [ 106 ], making obesity socially unacceptable does not appear to reduce obesity rates, and on the contrary results in increased harms.

In addition to worsening mental and physical health, obesity stigma may also augment all-cause mortality and shorten lifespan. Amongst participants from two large longitudinal studies in the USA, those who experienced weight stigma and discrimination had an increased mortality of almost 60% (The Health and Retirement Study, hazard ratio = 1.57, 95% CI: 1.34–1.84; Midlife in the United States Study, hazard ratio = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.09–2.31). This increased mortality risk persisted when controlled for common risk factors, including BMI [ 11 ]. Chronic psychological stress resulting from obesity stigma can trigger activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis with increased release of adrenally derived cortisol that in turn can drive increased fat deposition and appetite [ 107 , 108 ]. Enhanced cortisol release may contribute to increased mortality through weight gain and associations with inflammation, immune dysregulation, hypertension, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress [ 109 – 111 ]. Furthermore, enhanced cortisol release may also mediate some of the worsening effects of obesity stigma on abdominal obesity, glycaemic control, and the development of metabolic syndrome [ 12 ]. These associations parallel the pathophysiology contributing to worse health outcomes for those experiencing other forms of discrimination such as racism [ 112 , 113 ].

Obesity stigma contributes to poorer healthcare for people with obesity. There is growing evidence that healthcare providers have strong explicit and implicit biases against people with obesity [ 109 , 114 ]. Healthcare obesity stigma is characterised by stereotypes of laziness, lack of discipline, and willpower [ 115 ]. Inevitably, this mindset influences the judgement, behaviour, and decision-making of healthcare providers [ 115 ], who tend to have less respect for people with obesity [ 116 ] and believe that people with obesity are less likely to follow self-care recommendations or adhere to recommended treatments [ 117 , 118 ]. Healthcare providers have also been more likely to perceive the care of people with obesity as a “waste of time” [ 115 ], and are known to spend less time in consultations with people with obesity than their normal-weight counterparts [ 119 , 120 ]. Other healthcare issues that have previously reported stem from obesity stigma include the over-attribution of symptoms to obesity, failure to explore alternate diagnoses, reduced exploration of treatment options (“therapeutic inertia”), and hesitancy to conduct clinical examinations [ 121 , 122 ].

Understandably, people with obesity have reported avoiding healthcare encounters due to discriminatory and stigmatising experiences [ 123 , 124 ]. People with obesity report being mistreated and even ignored when receiving healthcare, and are up to three times more likely to report being denied healthcare [ 13 ]. Obesity stigma within healthcare and stigmatised judgements from healthcare professionals also perpetuates obesity by reducing the likelihood of people achieving their weight loss targets [ 125 ].

Finally, the socioeconomic impact of obesity is extensive. In employment, researchers from high-income countries believe that having obesity negatively impacts wages, promotion, and the potential for disciplinary action [ 126 , 127 ]. In the USA, people with obesity have previously been found to be less likely to be hired than their lean counterparts, even when qualifications are identical [ 128 ]. In Korea, women who are overweight receive less pay than lean women for the same work [ 129 ]. There is plentiful anecdotal evidence of people getting fired for having overweight or obesity [ 130 , 131 ]. In education also, obesity stigma appears to be present at all levels of schooling and college — at least in some countries — and leads to prejudice, rejection, and harassment, making educational spaces less safe for people with obesity [ 126 ]. In public settings too such as theatres, cinemas, shops, restaurants, and transport, obesity stigma may shape attitudes that people with obesity should not be accommodated for. Accordingly, people with obesity may be prevented from the same level of participation as their lean counterparts through a public infrastructure that fails to accommodate them adequately. Overall, obesity stigma has a substantial impact on socioeconomic factors through diverse means that include unequal standards in education, employment, career progression, salary, and public infrastructure.

Addressing obesity stigma is a healthcare imperative. As outlined, obesity stigma has severe consequences for people living with obesity, including but not limited to psychological distress, mental illness, increased mortality and morbidity, and worse healthcare [ 10 •, 11 – 13 ]. Furthermore, obesity stigma perpetuates obesity through physiological, psychological, and social effects, acting like a vicious circle [ 25 ].

Addressing obesity stigma is also an ethical imperative. Stigma burdens groups with undue discrimination, prejudice, and exclusion, and dehumanises them in the face of their community [ 60 ]. Burris argued that stigma evoked “ the total destruction of the individual’s status in organized society. It is a form of punishment more primitive than torture ” [ 132 ]. Stigma is especially unethical in the context of obesity insofar that it burdens already underprivileged and vulnerable groups, such as the global poor, rural, and certain minority ethnic groups [ 60 ].

Addressing obesity stigma is necessary to improve the public health efforts to prevent and manage obesity, which despite global efforts has had limited success to date [ 133 ]. Interventions that target the individual have had little success, partly due to obesity stigma-induced barriers to the widespread adoption of healthy behaviours [ 133 , 134 ]. When obesity is seen as a personal choice, as reinforced by obesity stigma, solutions focus on changing individual behaviours in lieu of synergistic strategies that focus on changing systems and environments to support healthy behaviours, the latter being consistent with the current evidence base [ 25 , 78 , 133 , 135 , 136 ]. However, such an approach is hampered through widespread obesity stigma within society. Re-calibrating this perception amongst society, including politicians, healthcare providers, and town planners, will help to support the development of effective public health strategies for the future that should properly address the many and diverse environmental and systemic contributors to the development of obesity, balanced with consideration of personal factors.

Firstly, it is important to acknowledge the striking paucity of research on the topic of reducing obesity stigma within society. Authors of systematic reviews have repeatedly highlighted this deficiency and the low quality of existing research papers within the field [ 137 – 139 ]. This scenario may reflect the early stages of this field and/or a lack of interest, perhaps stemming from an acceptance of obesity stigma (including amongst researchers). A prerequisite for tackling the problem of obesity stigma within society is the generation of high-quality research on effective interventions that have consistent theoretical frameworks, strong study designs, and sound methodologies [ 137 , 138 ]. Such data will facilitate the development of a consensus on the development of optimal strategies to reduce obesity stigma within society, and enable implementation of consistent and co-ordinated public health action [ 138 ].

Secondly, shifting public health messaging away from obesity and towards healthy behaviours, or alternatively away from behaviour completely, to allow the appropriate focus on the environments where the behaviour takes place, may facilitate the deconstruction of obesity stigma. We do not deny that there is strong evidence that having overweight and obesity increases all-cause mortality [ 140 ], and that weight loss can improve obesity-related morbidity [ 141 ]. However, benefits of healthy behaviours are often overlooked in the context of BMI [ 142 ]. The 15-year prospective Rotterdam study showed that physical activity moderated the risk of cardiovascular disease in people with overweight and obesity to the extent that there was no difference in CVD risk between people with high or normal-range BMI [ 143 ]. Other studies show that healthy diets may reduce all-cause mortality risk, particularly CVD risk, even when accounting for BMI [ 144 ].

Based on such evidence, placing too much emphasis on obesity per se, and focussing too much on weight loss purely to reduce obesity severity, is perhaps unhelpful. Although this may appear counterintuitive, such a traditional approach to obesity unfortunately also places emphasis on appearance and may actually demotivate and ostracise people with obesity [ 9 , 145 ], thereby hampering rather than helping with obesity management. An alternate approach, and one that we support, promotes the use of public health policies that encourage the adoption of healthy behaviours, including for example nutrient-rich diets cooked from their raw ingredients (rather than ultra-processed foods), regular engagement in physical activity, and sleep sufficiency by intervening to create environmental drivers for these behaviours. All people, including those with overweight and obesity, should be empowered and supported through structural interventions and policies and positive public health messaging to adopt such healthy lifestyle activities and behaviours [ 146 , 147 ]. This approach does not deny the harmful effects of excess body weight, but by detracting attention from body shape and size should help to diminish societal obesity stigma, whilst facilitating healthy living, that in turn should help in the prevention and management of obesity, stigma-free.

As interventions that rely solely on education and individual behaviour change are largely ineffective [ 148 , 149 ], enabling healthy behaviours will require both physical and food environmental changes and fiscal policies to support them [ 25 ]. Examples include improvements to the availability, accessibility, and affordability of fresh nutrient-rich foods, improved public transportation and urban planning to facilitate active and safe outdoor lifestyles [ 150 , 151 ]. Importantly, improving the “healthfulness” of our food and physical environments should also help to establish improved equity in the distribution of key resources within the population.

Thirdly, deconstructing obesity stigma through educational interventions is promising. Educational interventions that provide information on the genetic and environmental causes of obesity have shown some success in changing attitudes about how much control individuals have over their own body weight [ 139 , 152 ]. Other studies on healthcare students and workers have had modest success by evoking empathy and acceptance of persons with obesity through positive contact [ 139 ]. Current evidence suggests that the greatest efficacy on tackling obesity stigma is achieved when multiple and diverse educational strategies are combined [ 139 ].

Extrapolating these early findings, obesity could be reframed in public education efforts as a chronic condition that manifests primarily from a combination of genetic predisposition that interacts maladaptively with our obesogenic environment: factors that are predominantly beyond our individual control [ 9 ]. Furthermore, people living with obesity should receive positive representation in the media, including acceptance, inclusion, and empowerment. Importantly, the voices of people with obesity should be amongst the forefront of these public health campaigns [ 153 ]. This conceptual overhaul will require significant and sustained public education efforts that incorporate “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches, such as education within schools and universities, and efforts to re-define obesity and its causes within government and industry [ 134 ]. Educational efforts could be targeted at institutions where the impact of obesity stigma is particularly pronounced, such as healthcare, educational settings, and places of employment [ 110 ].

The re-classification of obesity has been discussed by others as key to education efforts. Obesity was labelled a disease by the WHO International Classification of Diseases, the American Medical Association, and the World Obesity Federation in the early 2000–2010’s [ 154 ]. There is significant debate in academic and public realms on the appropriateness of this stance [ 154 ]. Some argue a disease label “legitimises” obesity by acknowledging biological and genetic underpinnings, and could increase attention and resource allocation to obesity research, prevention, and treatment [ 156 ]. In contrast, there is legitimate concern that a disease label will worsen the stigmatisation of people with obesity and increase discrimination [ 155 , 157 ]. There is also evidence that disease-labelling may disempower and reduce self-efficacy; Hoyt et al. found that labelling obesity as a disease reduced concerns about weight and predicted higher-calorie food choices amongst people with higher BMIs [ 158 ]. We caution against the labelling of obesity as a disease prior to more extensive investigation of its impact on obesity stigmatisation and psychosocial wellbeing, in addition to potential policy, fiscal, and healthcare impacts.

Fourthly, efforts to reduce obesity stigmatisation in the public domain could be spearheaded by legislation to prohibit prejudice and discrimination on the basis of weight [ 86 ]. Although educational efforts are important, without the support of our formal institutions, these messages are likely to be insufficient [ 159 ]. Few national or state legislations globally protect citizens from weight discrimination, providing legal freedom for industries to discriminate based on obesity status [ 62 ]. Weight-based discrimination should be formally recognised as a legitimate social concern and be included in antidiscrimination acts that prohibit discrimination based on other personal characteristics such as sex, marital status, or disability. Notably, it will be important to balance the need for protection and equal treatment of people with obesity against the risk of even greater obesity stigmatisation that may stem from such new legislation [ 160 ]. Position statements from government and public health organisations should demonstrate non-stigmatising language and discourse around obesity. There is support for this approach from people enrolled in an international weight-management programme across six countries [ 161 •].

Implementing these changes will take no less than a social overhaul and is likely to require decades of consistent action. However, the promise of change is already being seen through the body positivity movements and the creation of “safe spaces” for obesity in certain domains. Perhaps we can use the example of racial discrimination, which decades ago was rife globally, and in many countries acceptable and legally permitted and even encouraged through, for example, apartheid. Although, sadly, racial discrimination continues in our modern world, it is often illegal, and generally much better recognised and managed than in previous decades. We need to move towards such a scenario with obesity stigma and discrimination.

We predict that in the decades to come, we will look back at our current era in shame. We will recognise obesity stigma for what it is: discrimination just like any other form of discrimination that has become normalised within our society to an extent that its existence often even goes unnoticed. An important step on this long road will be to dispel myths around obesity, and to educate society on its true causes. Improved understanding should help to dispel associated myths around personal responsibility and should help to foster more empathy for people living with obesity. Gradually, such renewed understanding and insights should help us to have the courage and conviction to question obesity stigma when we encounter it, and hold the perpetrators to account, so that they too can question their misjudged beliefs and behaviours. As outlined, this approach will only work through a combined, concerted, and sustained effort from multiple stakeholders and key decision-makers within society. Only then can we hope for a transformed society which is finally freed from the shackles of obesity stigma, in which body weight no longer defines the people living in it.

National Institute for Health Research, ARC, Oyinlola Oyebode

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Obesity and Weight Loss Strategies Essay

Introduction, otc product and diet.

The obesity epidemic is among the most urgent healthcare issues in the United States and worldwide. According to recent estimations, between 39% and 49% of the world’s population are overweight or obese nowadays (Powell-Wiley et al., 2021). This trend has led to many people seeking weight loss through different means, including diet, eating behavior management, and pharmacological weight loss agents (Kushner, 2018). However, over-the-counter (OTC) weight loss products have also gained popularity despite serious health risks (Rodriguez-Guerra et al., 2021). Therefore, it is essential for healthcare professionals to keep the broad public well-informed about the nature and potential adverse effects of such products.

The model client is a 40-year-old man with a family history of obesity-related cardiovascular disease. The client pursues weight loss primarily out of concerns for personal health due to recently developed hypertension. The client has considered using an OTC, non-prescription herbal weight loss supplement, AMPK Metabolic Activator. The drug is advertised as a mixture of two botanical components that supposedly help the body burn stored abdominal fat (AMPK Metabolic Activator, n. d.). The patient’s product choice was primarily driven by the desire to achieve quick weight loss using natural products instead of synthetic medications.

However, the client was strongly advised against using OTC products due to a broad range of associated health hazards. Despite advertisement, most OTC herbal weight loss drugs are adulterated with active pharmaceutical agents (Dastjerdi et al., 2018). The pharmaceutical components in such products include tramadol, caffeine, fluoxetine, rizatriptan, venlafaxine, and methadone (Dastjerdi et al., 2018). Legal in most countries, these agents present serious health risks in case of excessive consumption. Furthermore, sibutramine, associated with a high risk of cardiovascular diseases even among consumers without a known history of CVDs, remains in many herbal medications (Rodriguez-Guerra et al., 2021). Therefore, the list of potential negative side-effects of the OTC weight loss products contradicts the client’s initial expectations and desires.

A healthier and more effective weight loss strategy is changing the lifestyle. Healthcare experts agree that weight loss depends primarily on reducing total caloric intake and sufficient physical activity (Kushner, 2018). Additionally, this strategy helps prevent a broad range of cardiovascular diseases and improves the overall physical condition. Therefore, a diet based on the client’s metabolic profile and health condition is the strategy’s primary focus. Experts recommend the calorie-reduced Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products, for patients with hypertension (Kushner, 2018). The proposed day 1 menu would consist of the following:

• a whole-wheat bagel with 2 tablespoons peanut butter, an orange, and a cup of fat-free milk for breakfast;
• spinach salad with reduced-sodium wheat crackers for lunch;
• baked cod with 1/2 cup brown rice pilaf with vegetables, 1/2 cup fresh green beans, and herbal tea for dinner (Sample menus for the DASH diet, 2020).

This diet corresponds to the client’s goals and is optimal for his health profile.

Intermittent fasting (IF) has become an increasingly popular approach to treating obesity. Its proponents argue that the strategy is more effective in addressing weight loss than traditional daily caloric intake reduction (Halpern & Mendes, 2021). The IF advocates claim that high insulin levels in the organism associated with high carbohydrate intake facilitate the development of obesity. Intermittent fasting addresses this issue by reducing insulin levels via specially developed fasting schedules. However, experimental models in animals and humans have repeatedly discredited the insulin-related theory (Halpern & Mendes, 2021). Nevertheless, many people still see IF as a preferable alternative, mainly due to its widely marketed supposed benefits and the absence of strict dietary limitations and excessive physical activity.

Obesity remains a significant public health hazard globally, requiring the development and broad introduction of efficient and affordable weight loss strategies and programs. While many still resort to OTC medications and other questionable weight loss strategies, public health professionals and institutions must promote evidence-based approaches. These include safe, personally developed, balanced dietary measures, prescription pharmaceutical agents, and a healthy lifestyle with sufficient physical activity and caloric intake.

AMPK Metabolic Activator (n. d.). Life Extension. Web.

Dastjerdi, A. G., Akhgari, M., Kamali, A., & Mousavi, Z. (2018). Principal component analysis of synthetic adulterants in herbal supplements advertised as weight loss drugs . Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 31 , 236–241. Web.

Halpern, B., & Mendes, T. B. (2021). Intermittent fasting for obesity and related disorders: unveiling myths, facts, and presumptions. Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 65 (1). Web.

Kushner, R. F. (2018). Weight Loss Strategies for Treatment of Obesity: Lifestyle Management and Pharmacotherapy . Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases. Web.

Powell-Wiley, T. M., Poirier, P., Burke, L. E., J.-P., Després, Gordon-Larsen, P., Lavie, C. J., Lear,S. A., Ndumele, C. E., Neeland, I. J., Sanders, P., & St-Onge, M.-P. (2021). Obesity and cardiovascular disease: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association . Circulation, 143 (21), 984–1010. Web.

Rodriguez-Guerra, M., Yadav, M., Bhandari, M., Sinha, A., Bella, J. N., & Sklyar, E. (2021). Sibutramine as a cause of sudden cardiac death . Case Reports in Cardiology, 2021 , 1–5. Web.

Sample menus for the DASH diet (2020). Mayo Clinic. Web.

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