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• 29 Feb 2024

Beyond Goals: David Beckham's Playbook for Mobilizing Star Talent

Reach soccer's pinnacle. Become a global brand. Buy a team. Sign Lionel Messi. David Beckham makes success look as easy as his epic free kicks. But leveraging world-class talent takes discipline and deft decision-making, as case studies by Anita Elberse reveal. What could other businesses learn from his ascent?

• 17 Jan 2024

Psychological Pricing Tactics to Fight the Inflation Blues

Inflation has slowed from the epic rates of 2021 and 2022, but many consumers still feel pinched. What will it take to encourage them to spend? Thoughtful pricing strategies that empower customers as they make purchasing decisions, says research by Elie Ofek.

• 05 Dec 2023
• Cold Call Podcast

What Founders Get Wrong about Sales and Marketing

Which sales candidate is a startup’s ideal first hire? What marketing channels are best to invest in? How aggressively should an executive team align sales with customer success? Senior Lecturer Mark Roberge discusses how early-stage founders, sales leaders, and marketing executives can address these challenges as they grow their ventures in the case, “Entrepreneurial Sales and Marketing Vignettes.”

Tommy Hilfiger’s Adaptive Clothing Line: Making Fashion Inclusive

In 2017, Tommy Hilfiger launched its adaptive fashion line to provide fashion apparel that aims to make dressing easier. By 2020, it was still a relatively unknown line in the U.S. and the Tommy Hilfiger team was continuing to learn more about how to serve these new customers. Should the team make adaptive clothing available beyond the U.S., or is a global expansion premature? Assistant Professor Elizabeth Keenan discusses the opportunities and challenges that accompanied the introduction of a new product line that effectively serves an entirely new customer while simultaneously starting a movement to provide fashion for all in the case, “Tommy Hilfiger Adaptive: Fashion for All.”

• Research & Ideas

Are Virtual Tours Still Worth It in Real Estate? Evidence from 75,000 Home Sales

Many real estate listings still feature videos and interactive tools that simulate the experience of walking through properties. But do they help homes sell faster? Research by Isamar Troncoso probes the post-pandemic value of virtual home tours.

• 17 Oct 2023

With Subscription Fatigue Setting In, Companies Need to Think Hard About Fees

Subscriptions are available for everything from dental floss to dog toys, but are consumers tiring of monthly fees? Elie Ofek says that subscription revenue can provide stability, but companies need to tread carefully or risk alienating customers.

• 29 Aug 2023

As Social Networks Get More Competitive, Which Ones Will Survive?

In early 2023, TikTok reached close to 1 billion users globally, placing it fourth behind the leading social networks: Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram. Meanwhile, competition in the market for videos had intensified. Can all four networks continue to attract audiences and creators? Felix Oberholzer-Gee discusses competition and imitation among social networks in his case “Hey, Insta & YouTube, Are You Watching TikTok?”

• 26 Jun 2023

Want to Leave a Lasting Impression on Customers? Don't Forget the (Proverbial) Fireworks

Some of the most successful customer experiences end with a bang. Julian De Freitas provides three tips to help businesses invest in the kind of memorable moments that will keep customers coming back.

• 31 May 2023

With Predictive Analytics, Companies Can Tap the Ultimate Opportunity: Customers’ Routines

Armed with more data than ever, many companies know what key customers need. But how many know exactly when they need it? An analysis of 2,000 ridesharing commuters by Eva Ascarza and colleagues shows what's possible for companies that can anticipate a customer's routine.

• 30 May 2023

Can AI Predict Whether Shoppers Would Pick Crest Over Colgate?

Is it the end of customer surveys? Definitely not, but research by Ayelet Israeli sheds light on the potential for generative AI to improve market research. But first, businesses will need to learn to harness the technology.

• 24 Apr 2023

What Does It Take to Build as Much Buzz as Booze? Inside the Epic Challenge of Cannabis-Infused Drinks

The market for cannabis products has exploded as more states legalize marijuana. But the path to success is rife with complexity as a case study about the beverage company Cann by Ayelet Israeli illustrates.

• 07 Apr 2023

When Celebrity ‘Crypto-Influencers’ Rake in Cash, Investors Lose Big

Kim Kardashian, Lindsay Lohan, and other entertainers have been accused of promoting crypto products on social media without disclosing conflicts. Research by Joseph Pacelli shows what can happen to eager investors who follow them.

• 10 Feb 2023

COVID-19 Lessons: Social Media Can Nudge More People to Get Vaccinated

Social networks have been criticized for spreading COVID-19 misinformation, but the platforms have also helped public health agencies spread the word on vaccines, says research by Michael Luca and colleagues. What does this mean for the next pandemic?

• 02 Feb 2023

Why We Still Need Twitter: How Social Media Holds Companies Accountable

Remember the viral video of the United passenger being removed from a plane? An analysis of Twitter activity and corporate misconduct by Jonas Heese and Joseph Pacelli reveals the power of social media to uncover questionable situations at companies.

• 06 Dec 2022

Latest Isn’t Always Greatest: Why Product Updates Capture Consumers

Consumers can't pass up a product update—even if there's no improvement. Research by Leslie John, Michael Norton, and Ximena Garcia-Rada illustrates the powerful allure of change. Are we really that naïve?

• 29 Nov 2022

How Much More Would Holiday Shoppers Pay to Wear Something Rare?

Economic worries will make pricing strategy even more critical this holiday season. Research by Chiara Farronato reveals the value that hip consumers see in hard-to-find products. Are companies simply making too many goods?

• 26 Oct 2022

How Paid Promos Take the Shine Off YouTube Stars (and Tips for Better Influencer Marketing)

Influencers aspire to turn "likes" into dollars through brand sponsorships, but these deals can erode their reputations, says research by Shunyuan Zhang. Marketers should seek out authentic voices on YouTube, not necessarily those with the most followers.

• 25 Oct 2022

Is Baseball Ready to Compete for the Next Generation of Fans?

With its slower pace and limited on-field action, major league baseball trails football in the US, basketball, and European soccer in revenue and popularity. Stephen Greyser discusses the state of "America's pastime."

• 18 Oct 2022

When Bias Creeps into AI, Managers Can Stop It by Asking the Right Questions

Even when companies actively try to prevent it, bias can sway algorithms and skew decision-making. Ayelet Israeli and Eva Ascarza offer a new approach to make artificial intelligence more accurate.

• 08 Aug 2022

Building an 'ARMY' of Fans: Marketing Lessons from K-Pop Sensation BTS

Few companies can boast a customer base as loyal and engaged as BTS fans. In a case study, Doug Chung shares what marketers can learn from the boyband's savvy use of social media and authentic connection with listeners.

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Journal of Marketing ( JM ) develops and disseminates knowledge about real-world marketing questions useful to scholars, educators, managers, policy makers, consumers, and other societal stakeholders around the world. It is the premier outlet for substantive marketing scholarship. Since its founding in 1936, JM has played a significant role in shaping the content and boundaries of the marketing discipline. Learn more about JM here .

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A Research-Proven Way to Build a Bigger Social Audience: Target Followers of Followers

Time to rethink your influencer marketing efforts? A new Journal of Marketing study shows that firms aiming to build a large follower base are better off targeting followers of followers than cherry-picking remote influencers.

Addressing the Rural Health Care Crisis: Pay Doctors to Travel from Urban Areas

A new Journal of Marketing study shows that subsidizing outreach in the form of a per-mile payment is a cost-effective means of addressing the rural health care crisis 🎧

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Phil Kotler, the “father of modern marketing,” reflects on the past and future of the discipline.

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Journal of Marketing Research ( JMR ) delves into the latest thinking in marketing research concepts, methods, and applications from a broad range of scholars. It is included in both the  Financial Times  top 50 business journals and the University of Texas at Dallas research rankings journal list. Learn more about JMR here .

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How Fast-Fashion Copycats Hurt—and Help—High-End Fashion Brands

A Journal of Marketing Research study finds that a moderate degree of copying in fast fashion may actually help increase the popularity of high-end (luxury) brands.

Predicting the Unpredictable: How Sales Managers Can Get Better ROI from Predictive Sales Analytics Tools

Organizations increasingly use predictive analytics, but it’s not so clear how salespeople can use them to their advantage. A new Journal of Marketing Research study can help managers get more out of these tools.

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Using Identity to Secure Nonprofit Donations

To boost donation rates, nonprofits must ensure potential donors identify with their charitable appeals. These five research-based strategies can allow nonprofits to use identity to increase charitable donations and remove the guesswork from their campaigns.

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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing ( JPP&M ) is a forum for understanding the nexus of marketing and public policy, with each issue featuring a wide-range of topics, including, but not limited to, ecology, ethics and social responsibility, nutrition and health, regulation and deregulation, security and privacy. Learn more about JPP&M here .

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Into the Woods: Making a Difference via Marketing and Public Policy Research

In this editorial, Coeditors in Chief Jeremy Kees and Beth Vallen introduce their strategic vision for Journal of Public Policy & Marketing .

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JPP&M special issue editors Marie Louise Radanielina and Yany Grégoire set out to add marketing voices to the conversation about radicalization. Check out the research here.

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JPP&M chronicles and analyzes the joint impact of marketing and governmental actions on economic performance, consumer welfare, and business decisions. This page catalogs  JPP&M ‘s contributions on the topic of race and its intersection with marketing and public policy.

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Journal of International Marketing ( JIM ) is dedicated to advancing international marketing practice, research and theory. This journal’s prime objective is to bridge the gap between theory and practice in international marketing for business scholars and practitioners. Learn more about JIM here .

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Consumers Prefer Local Products When the Economy Is Good, but They Prefer Global Products During Recessions

How do economic fluctuations affect consumers’ preference for global vs. local products? This Journal of International Marketing article explains.

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Journal of Interactive Marketing aims to identify issues and frame ideas associated with the rapidly expanding field of interactive marketing, which includes both online and offline topics related to the analysis, targeting, and service of individual customers. We strive to publish leading-edge, high-quality, and original research that presents results, methodologies, theories, concepts, models, and applications on any aspect of interactive marketing. Learn more about the journal here .

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Harms, Hoekstra, and Bijmolt Win 2022 Journal of Interactive Marketing Best Paper Award

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The overarching role of international marketing: Relevance and centrality in research and practice

• Published: 18 May 2021
• Volume 52 , pages 1429–1444, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Saeed Samiee 1 ,
• Constantine S. Katsikeas 2 &
• G. Tomas M. Hult 3  

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Classic business literature asserts the central role of marketing as foundational to the existence of organizations, and further notes that marketing must permeate all areas of a business enterprise. Leveraging this premise, we examine marketing scholars’ contributions to the international business (IB) literature – specifically notable works in exporting and market entry. Despite the overarching role of marketing in business, our systematic examination of published works in JIBS identified only 11 marketing contributions among the top 100 most frequently cited publications. More recent Web of Science data for the most cited contributions since 2015 demonstrate a decline in the number of international marketing (IM) and IB-related contributions by marketing scholars. Our goal in this editorial is to re-emphasize marketing’s critical importance and centrality in IB research, especially with reference to its dominant role in such areas as exporting and market entry decisions, customer acquisition, and relationship management. This special issue is intended to highlight IM and to motivate more contributions by IM scholars, as well as to call for greater integration of marketing thought in IB research.

La littérature classique en management affirme le rôle central du marketing comme fondement de l'existence des organisations, et souligne en outre que le marketing doit imprégner tous les domaines d'une entreprise. Nous appuyant sur cette prémisse, nous examinons les contributions des chercheurs en marketing à la littérature du commerce international (IB – International Business ), plus spécifiquement, les travaux importants portés sur l’exportation et l’entrée sur les marchés. Malgré le rôle fondamental du marketing dans les affaires, notre examen systématique des travaux publiés dans la revue JIBS n'a identifié que 11 contributions liées au marketing parmi les 100 publications les plus fréquemment citées. Les données plus récentes sur le Web of Science liées aux contributions les plus citées depuis 2015 montrent une baisse du nombre de contributions relatives au marketing international (IM – International Marketing ) et au IB par les chercheurs en marketing. Dans cet éditorial, notre objectif est de souligner à nouveau l’importance critique et la centralité du marketing dans la recherche en IB, notamment par rapport à son rôle dominant dans les domaines tels que les décisions d’exportation et d’entrée sur les marchés, l’acquisition de clients et la gestion des relations. Ce numéro spécial a pour but de mettre en valeur le IM, de stimuler davantage de contributions de la part des chercheurs en IM, ainsi que d'appeler à une plus grande intégration de la pensée marketing dans la recherche en IB.

La literatura empresarial clásica reivindica el papel del marketing como primordial a la existencia de las organizaciones y además nota que el marketing debe permear todas las áreas de una empresa. Apalancándonos en esta premisa, examinamos las contribuciones de los académicos de marketing a la literatura de negocios internacionales – específicamente los trabajos más destacados sobre la exportación y la entrada del mercado. A pesar del papel global del marketing en los negocios, nuestro examen sistemático de los trabajos publicados en JIBS identificamos sólo 11 contribuciones de marketing entre las 100 publicaciones más citadas. Los datos más recientes de Web of Science de las contribuciones más citadas desde el 2015 demuestran una disminución en el numero de contribuciones relacionadas con marketing y negocios internacionales por parte de los estudiosos de marketing. Nuestra meta con este editorial es hacer hincapié a importancia fundamental del marketing y su centralidad en la investigación de negocios internacionales, especialmente con referencia a su papel dominante en áreas como la exportación y las decisiones de entrada al mercado, la adquisición de clientes y la gestión de relaciones. Esta edición especial busca resaltar el marketing internacional y motivar más contribuciones de académicos de marketing internacional, y también hacer un llamado a una mayor integración del pensamiento de marketing en la investigación de negocios internacionales.

A literatura clássica de negócios afirma o papel central do marketing como fundamental para a existência de organizações e, além disso, observa que o marketing deve permear todas as áreas de uma empresa. Aproveitando essa premissa, examinamos contribuições dos acadêmicos de marketing para a literatura de negócios internacionais (IB), especificamente trabalhos notáveis em exportação e entrada no mercado. Apesar do papel abrangente do marketing nos negócios, nosso exame sistemático de trabalhos publicados no JIBS identificou apenas 11 contribuições de marketing entre as 100 publicações mais citadas. Dados mais recentes da Web of Science para as contribuições mais citadas desde 2015 demonstram um declínio no número de contribuições de marketing internacional (IM) e relacionadas a IB por acadêmicos de marketing. Nosso objetivo neste editorial é reenfatizar a importância crítica e centralidade do marketing na pesquisa em IB, especialmente com referência ao seu papel dominante em áreas como exportação e decisões de entrada no mercado, aquisição de clientes e gerenciamento de relacionamento. Esta edição especial tem como objetivo destacar o IM e motivar mais contribuições de acadêmicos de IM, bem como pedir uma maior integração do pensamento de marketing na pesquisa de IB.

经典的商业文献断言市场营销对组织存在有着基础的中心的作用, 并进一步指出, 市场营销必须渗透到商业企业的所有领域。 利用这一前提, 我们研究了市场营销学者对国际商务 (IB) 文献的贡献, 特别是在出口和市场准入方面的著名作品。 尽管市场营销在商业中起着举足轻重的作用, 我们对JIBS发表的作品的系统检查发现, 在最常被引用的前100篇文章中只有11篇是市场营销的贡献。最新的Web of Science数据 (自2015年以来被引用最多的数据) 表明, 市场营销学者对国际市场营销 (IM) 和与IB相关的贡献数量有所下降。 我们这篇社论的目标是重新强调市场营销在IB研究中的至关重要性和中心地位, 尤其是参考市场营销在出口和进入市场决策、客户获取以及关系管理等领域的主导作用。 本期专刊旨在突出IM和激发IM学者做出更多的贡献, 并呼吁将市场营销思想与IB研究有更大的整合。

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

INTRODUCTION

Marketing is the raison d’etre and the force that drives organizations. Among the many axioms advanced by Peter Drucker, the father of modern management, are that the purpose of a business is “to create customers”, and that an organization has only two functions: one role relates to marketing (i.e., innovation) and the other is marketing (Drucker, 1954 , p. 37; Trout, 2006 ; Webster, 2009 ). Drucker further observed that only innovation and marketing produce results (i.e., revenue streams); the rest are costs (Cohen, 2013 ). Product innovation is a key marketing strategy component and an important means of creating and keeping customers, and, hence, a central element of a successful competitive strategy. This marketing-based view is also shared by other management thought leaders. Ted Levitt ( 2006 , p. 129), for example, notes that “the entire corporation must be viewed as a customer-creating and customer-satisfying organism.”

The “marketing-based” position held by seasoned management opinion leaders underscores the “overarching” role and centrality of marketing as a philosophy that should drive virtually all organizations. In fact, McKenna ( 1991 ) takes this notion even further by claiming “…successful companies are becoming market driven, adapting their products to fit their customers’ strategies” (p. 66). Adopting market orientation and becoming a market-driven organization, in turn, require marketing to “permeate” all aspects of organizational decision-making, inclusive of international business activities, before a product is produced or externally sourced. Parenthetically, since marketing represents the interface of all businesses with their customers, it should be expected to play a central role in published academic works in business, including international business (IB) – the focus of attention in this editorial.

Many studies have examined research themes covered in IB journals. One such effort surveyed academic publications in the six leading IB-related journals, and identified and classified 112 articles with at least 20 citations each for the 1996–2006 period (Griffith, Cavusgil, & Xu, 2008 ). Collectively, with over 22% of the most-cited publications, marketing was identified as having the largest number of publications. 1 In keeping with business thought leaders’ position on the purpose of an enterprise, one would expect a higher proportion of (1) internationally oriented marketing topics and/or (2) published works on other topics, such as IB, that actively include marketing in some meaningful way. Surprisingly, much of the published research in IB excludes marketing considerations. As an example, in examining foreign market entry and expansion modes [e.g., foreign direct investment (FDI)], the ultimate goal – beyond the theoretical lens in use, efficiencies, drivers, order of market entry, and resultant models and theories – is to gain or create new customers and/or better serve current customers in markets worldwide. Such an approach constitutes a marketing-centric view of FDI.

The IB literature has demonstrated that firms engaging in FDI invest more in research and development (R&D) and innovation (e.g., Anand & Kogut, 1997 ); however, the IB literature is not explicit about why firms invest in innovation in the first place. 2 A marketing-centric view (e.g., Ellis, 2000 ; Knight & Cavusgil, 2004 ; Leonidou & Katsikeas, 1996 ) does not imply a necessity to include marketing in every (e.g., market entry) project. Rather, it consists of a researcher mindset that conceives of and fine-tunes research projects in light of the ultimate purpose of an organization (per Drucker, Levitt, and McKenna) when marketing is not an explicit aspect of the study. The business worldview from within the marketing discipline is that marketing permeates the entire organization (including innovation). IB scholars recognize the integrated nature of marketing across various firm activities in specific sectors (e.g., in the services industry per Rugman & Verbeke, 2008 , p. 409), however, creating and serving customers necessitate the broadening of this perspective across all industries, as predicated in marketing. Stated differently, framing marketing as a single value chain function, or adopting a strictly downstream view of it inhibits richer and more meaningful customer-centric, as well as increasingly more realistic conceptualizations of critical activities and decisions in IB (cf. Takeuchi & Porter, 1986 ). Among other downsides, the narrow conceptualization of marketing functions as downstream activities in the value chain undermines marketing’s true role and influence in shaping strategy formulation. Global strategy decisions envisioned and designed by the C-suite inherently involve a very significant level of marketing content, without which a sound global strategy is not possible.

Concurrently, Buckley ( 2002a ) voices concern that international marketing (IM) has neglected the proximal issue of globalization in studies of IM strategy. This concern is in line with the broader criticism that IM has also largely abandoned strategy issues (Kotabe, 2001 ). Indeed, the marketing discipline can be criticized for failing to fully embrace the influences of international and global dimensions across the many critical strategy pillars inherently thought of as marketing’s intellectual domain. An examination of research priorities published by the influential Marketing Science Institute (MSI) demonstrates the discipline’s relative inactive posture in IM/IB. In all, the 2020–2022 MSI Research Priorities report includes four internationally oriented topics among 126 research questions listed. 3 It is thus not too surprising that IM scholars have paid only scant attention to research opportunities at the intersection of IM strategy and globalization, which, in turn, has limited our understanding of the crucial role that marketing plays in establishing, developing, and sustaining effective business operations across markets worldwide. In parallel, we assert that investigations of globalization should also include marketing strategy considerations.

IM CONTRIBUTIONS TO JIBS

To develop a better understanding of the contributions of marketing scholarship to the IB literature and, more specifically, to the Journal of International Business Studies ( JIBS ), we examined all highly cited articles published in JIBS since the journal’s inception. We rank-ordered all articles by their total citation frequencies using the Web of Science (WOS) database. We identified 11 marketing articles on topics generally considered to belong to the marketing domain among the top 100 most-cited JIBS publications (Table 1 ). 4 We further observed that scholars with marketing ties have also made highly cited general IB contributions to the literature. Overall, it is evident that marketing scholars have made significant contributions in JIBS to the extant IM and IB knowledge. However, it is also apparent that the most highly cited IM publications in JIBS were published in the 1982–2002 period. This pattern raises a question about the relative impact of IM, as measured by WOS citation frequencies, in JIBS published works. We thus examined the most-cited JIBS publications since 2015 (Table 2 ). The data indicate that, in contrast to pre-2015, fewer marketing studies have been among the top 100 most-cited articles published in JIBS as of late. In addition, fewer contributions on broader IB topics are by authors with close marketing ties.

Despite the centrality and importance of marketing in business, the influence of IM scholars and IM publications in the broader IB discipline via the field’s leading journal has been on the decline. The marketing theme of this special issue of JIBS builds on business and management thought leaders’ (e.g., Drucker, Levitt) view regarding the purpose of a business enterprise; that is, we start with the premise of the critical importance of marketing to all facets of business and leverage broad-based agreement about the declining role of marketing in IB research as well as broader IB contributions by marketing scholars in JIBS . Our overarching objective in this issue is to motivate relevant and rigorous research that advances IM and, in turn, IB thought on an ongoing basis, beyond the confines of this special issue. If one subscribes to Drucker’s vision about the purpose of a business, then IM should be better integrated into and represented within IB publications, notably within JIBS , the leading and most highly cited journal in IB. To this end, our goals in this essay are to (1) highlight the role of IM within IB, (2) detail the many critical roles of marketing in today’s business enterprise, and (3) introduce the marketing contributions in this special issue.

THE ROLE OF IM WITHIN IB OVER TIME

Beyond Drucker’s view of the purpose of a business, IB at its core is inherently intertwined with marketing. For centuries, individuals and firms have sought to expand sales through exporting, which constitutes the most common foreign market entry and international expansion mode; for many firms, therefore, export marketing has defined IB. Indeed, all exporting is strictly rooted in marketing (see, for example, Anderson & Gatignon, 1986 ). 5 This view is implied in the broader perspective of export development, which emphasizes internal and external triggers to exporting (cf. Cavusgil & Nevin, 1980 ; Wiedersheim-Paul, Welch, & Olson, 1978 ), both of which are export marketing centered. Some scholars view all international market entry forms as essentially marketing driven (e.g., Douglas & Craig, 1989 ). Indeed, many early contributors to foreign market entry and the export development process are closely associated with the marketing discipline (e.g., Bilkey & Tesar, 1977 ; Cavusgil, 1980 ; Czinkota, & Johnston, 1981 ; Katsikeas, 1996 ; Samiee & Walters, 1991 ). Over time, some firms continue to reap the benefits of increased sales and profits via export marketing, whereas others, recognizing the broader and longer-term potential of global markets, have sought to establish different forms of engagement in markets abroad. For example, international leasing and licensing (i.e., limited-term rental contract of an asset) as means of foreign market entry or expansion constitute marketing activities, but they are often viewed as activities related to, for example, market expansion and operational strategy (e.g., Contractor, 1985 ; Ricks & Samiee, 1974 ). It may be that the role and critical importance of IM is widely recognized by IB scholars. However, making marketing’s presence more explicit in IB research can result in framing issues such that corresponding research findings will yield greater marketplace and marketing relevance, in line with Drucker’s and Levitt’s views on the purpose of business. In short, regardless of entry mode or a firm’s structural configuration, market expansion and increased sales via (in)direct marketing internationally is central to IB. Such a view highlights the centrality and critical role of IM activities, while emphasizing the significance of IM contributions to the broader IB field.

Interest in and focus on scholarly research in IM began to intensify during the 1980s, and empirical investigations of IM problems and challenges facing firms have received heightened research attention for decades. Initial scholarly research in IM was limited, though there is noteworthy work on export market entry triggers as well as motivations and explanations for internationalization decisions (Ford & Leonidou, 2013 ). Since this early research, IM scholars have amassed a growing, multifaceted, and well-developed body of knowledge. Despite these advances, however, the growing importance and relevance of IM remains underappreciated and understudied (Day, 1996 ). As an unfortunate outcome of this, IM topics in the top IB journals are sparse (cf. Griffith et al., 2008 ), and a current survey of several leading marketing and IB journals reveals a relative paucity of scholarly work on IM issues. 6 Given IM’s centrality to all enterprises, the primary purpose of this special issue is to reinforce IM’s broad-based importance, with a particular focus on IM in the broader IB context.

RESEARCH IN IM

A recent survey of the IM literature published in the top six IB/IM journals during the 1995–2015 period identified 1,722 published works (Leonidou, Katsikeas, Samiee, & Aykol, 2017 ). The knowledge structure on which this body of scholarly work indicates that many of the developments in IM thought are driven by 14 key knowledge nodes identified in Samiee and Chabowski ( 2012 ). 7 It is evident from the results of the investigation by Samiee and Chabowski ( 2012 ) that, in terms of knowledge base, IM has much in common with IB. A relatively high proportion (approximately 40%) of key sources used in IM research are also commonly cited in IB research, including Hofstede ( 1980 , 1991 , 2001 ), Porter ( 1980 , 1985 , 1990 ), Williamson ( 1975 , 1985 ), Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ), Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1989 ), Nelson and Winter ( 1982 ), Penrose ( 1959 ), and Pfeffer and Salancik ( 1978 ). Of the 26 most influential works in IM, serving as foundational knowledge for the 2004–2008 period, the majority (18) were published in outlets not specifically designated as marketing-related (Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ), thus demonstrating IM’s shared knowledge and close relationship to IB. Key IM knowledge nodes serving as the foundation of IM scholarship during this period appear in Table 3 .

IM research has evolved across numerous themes, with some areas receiving disproportionate scholarly attention over time (Leonidou et al., 2017 ). Foreign market entry and export marketing are among the oldest topics of interest for IM researchers, and these remain relevant and important. Collectively, origin-related research topics likely constitute the most popular IM theme among IM researchers and potentially the most researched area, with hundreds of publications (e.g., Kotabe, 2001 ; Papadopoulos, el Banna, Murphy, & Rojas-Méndez, 2011 ; Samiee & Chabowski, 2021 ). 8 Origin-related research – or more specifically, the country-of-origin line of research within IM – can be traced back broadly to Dichter ( 1962 ) and, more specifically, to Schooler ( 1965 ). Although the concept was applied strictly to customer product choice, it can and has been applied to other facets of IB (e.g., liability of foreignness). Beyond marketing, explicit recognition of business problems associated with nonlocal origins of firms began to emerge in the IB literature in the 1970s. For example, Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ) refer to the political problems of “foreignness,” and Boddewyn and Hansen ( 1977 , p. 550) note that “American companies were faced with handicaps due to their foreignness.” Although IB challenges related to nonlocal origins of products and firms seem intuitive, international marketers’ close proximity to markets and customers afforded them the opportunity to recognize the issue much earlier than appears to have been the case in the broader IB discipline. We highlight this issue to point to how IM and IB can and should leverage each other for a more comprehensive analysis and rapid advancement of the field.

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES GOING FORWARD

Much of the intellectual capital in IM works has been devoted to various aspects of buyer behavior (Kotabe, 2001 ; Leonidou et al., 2017 ). This trend is not surprising given that, in general, a large majority of MSI research priorities ( 2020 ) are focused on customer-related issues (including three of the four internationally oriented themes out of the 126 research questions posed). Among international themes, one research question pertains to gaining global perspectives on prioritizing customer value at all touchpoints during the omnichannel customer experience; another theme seeks to understand whether customer behavior is the same or different in emerging markets; and a third issue addresses ways in which firms might integrate consumer-focused strategies globally. A sharp focus on the buyer and, more specifically, the consumer and his/her behavior highlights an ongoing emphasis on behavioral issues within marketing at the expense of advancing other equally salient issues in need of development. As a result, some important IM research areas are not receiving sufficient scholarly attention. To this end, 25 years ago, Day ( 1996 , p. 15) noted that “studies of cross-cultural differences in buyer behavior or the effect of country of origin do not suffice when the big issues needing answers are about global competitive interactions, global new product development and launch practices, sharing of market insights across borders, or the coordination and integration of multicountry operations.” An overemphasis on the buyer behavior aspects of IM, frequently via experiments, has indeed curbed scholarly efforts to advance IM and the exploration of “big issues”: for example, the short- and long-term effects of radical shifts in the external environment and competitive structures on various aspects of marketing strategy, notably, global supply chain management, innovation, and global product development activities, among others. In general, innovation can be related to and affect any facet of an enterprise’s operations (e.g., processes). The key innovation concern within marketing has centered on product breakthroughs and service delivery, as well as how firms can adapt to a changing landscape often marked by disruptive technological developments. Nevertheless, studies of global innovation or R&D can benefit from cross-fertilization, with significant advances in this area within marketing.

Despite the decades-long practice of international outsourcing by firms, few IM researchers have explored this critical area (e.g., Kotabe & Murray, 1990 ; Swamidass & Kotabe, 1993 ). As a result, scant research is available within this important area to shed light on IM practices [e.g., innovate vs. import (buy) new products; make vs. buy] that can facilitate enhanced IM performance. To this end, a fourth research priority identified by MSI ( 2020 ) is the global supply chain impact of the pandemic (p. 11). Sourcing considerations, such as exporting and importing, are by nature customer-centric and marketing-based. Nevertheless, much of the research in the area is conducted within other disciplines (Buckley, Doh, & Benischke, 2017 ). The importance of a focus on the bigger picture, including the organization, human capital, capabilities, innovation, and metrics, has been stressed in marketing (Moorman & Day, 2016 ). Behavioral components should continue to play important roles in advancing marketing (and IM); however, these topics need to be examined within the context of organizational priorities and not strictly limited to consumer-based studies.

Given the commonality of direct and indirect international involvement across firms and industries, a host of new and exciting challenges related to customers, suppliers, and relationship management are raised. Today’s global marketplace is characterized by disruptive external forces, intense competition from a multitude of foreign and indigenous companies, and heterogeneous customer behavior shaped by differences across a range of host-market conditions, notably culture. Technological advances create marketplace opportunities and novel business models and segments (e.g., social media, collaborative consumption/shared economy, product cocreation), while undermining long-established global brands, product/service markets, and business patterns and processes on a global scale. For example, local and international ride-hailing services such as Ola and Uber competing with long established global car rental firms; collaboratively developed HD DVD losing the industry-wide format war to the technologically more advanced Blu-ray by Sony shortly after its debut which, in turn, lost popularity as the market shifted to streaming services; photorefractive keratectomy developed in the U.S. essentially undermined the Russian-born radial keratectomy; and MP3/FLAC and streaming services largely replaced tangible music CDs developed through an R&D joint venture between Philips and Sony. Concurrently, new technologies are promoting new forms of interaction for businesses and customers that transcend national boundaries (e.g., social media; short message service-SMS; online reviews; using proprietary consumer data via artificial intelligence activated voice recognition to drive host-market demand, as is the case with Amazon’s Alexa or Google Assistant). Concurrently, innovative breakthroughs and rapid dissemination of information have given rise to intellectual property theft on a global scale, undermining marketing strategies, global brands, and distribution network relationships and their management, while requiring all firms to canvass markets globally to identify potential abuses and to assert control over their intellectual property. 9

Although the Internet and information technology (IT) continue to have a significant influence on customers and businesses (e.g., exporters, importers, concept-testing, global marketing strategy planning), a citations-based review of the IM literature revealed that IT-related topics did not constitute a knowledge base in IM (Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ). This finding was corroborated by Leonidou et al. ( 2017 ), who noted that less 4% of IM-related academic articles reviewed included various facets of Internet connectivity. In addition, a literature review of 29 academic journals addressing the Internet’s impact on relational approaches to foreign market entry identified only 94 published articles, constituting approximately 3% of all the articles reviewed (Watson, Weaven, Perkins, Sardana, & Palmatier, 2018 ). IT has transformed how firms enter and manage markets globally to varying degrees in ways that are often not self-evident. In addition, IT's ubiquity and intangible nature make its detection and true impact on IM difficult, thus leading to a growing knowledge gap. The paucity of IT-motivated IM research uncovered by these reviews demonstrate the need to incorporate various facets of IT in more IM projects, including initial online export/import information gathering, marketing research, market entry and development, and export customer acquisition by both manufacturers and channel intermediaries. Furthermore, a research focus on cross-border e-commerce, especially as a means of internationalizing the scope of smaller firms’ marketing, is underdeveloped. It is surprising that, while origin-related buyer behavior topics remain popular, almost no effort has been made to explore how origin affects choice in online and, in particular, international e-commerce contexts (e.g., Ulgado, 2002 ). Buckley ( 2002a ) rightfully identified e-commerce as a frontier in IM research nearly two decades ago. Firms allocate significant amounts of financial resources to adopt promising technologies to improve their marketing performance, yet little research has been devoted to assessing the performance impact of digital tools (e.g., customer relationship management software) in terms of establishing new cross-border relationships or maintaining existing ones. Although IM has generally ignored such impactful areas of research as the influence of the Internet in global marketing, the IB literature, and more specifically international management, has also been shortsighted with respect to its limited pursuit of pertinent Internet-related research topics (e.g., international human resource management, global strategy development, management of global collaborative ventures and partnerships) (Chabowski & Samiee, 2020 ).

Social media influence both the demand and the supply side of exchange. On the supply side, firms are engaging people by allowing them to participate in cocreation and product development processes. Enterprises are increasingly engaging the public in idea generation via social media (e.g., Dell IdeaStorm, LEGO World Builder), new product development, and start-up capital (e.g., Quirky, Kickstarter). The degree to which firms engage social media audiences internationally (including both global and local social media sites) for one or more aspects of cocreation, and the influence of such activity on multinational corporations’ competitiveness across markets, remain unexplored. Examining the extent to which customers from around the world participate in knowledge development processes and help firms improve their existing products and/or create innovative ones also remains a fertile research area (Bayus, 2013 ; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004 ).

Equally important research issues on the demand side also warrant research attention. For example, customers located in distant parts of the world use social media, but the impact of such engagement, and the positive or negative ripple effect it creates in or across social networks with respect to local and global brands, has received insufficient research attention (McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig, 2002 ). Furthermore, the extent to which various customer segments rely on and ways in which they use social media across markets remain unexplored. This knowledge void, in turn, impacts the development of effective international cocreation strategies on the supply side. Relatedly, the global ubiquity of the Internet and social networks has made these media a major target for cybercriminals. Regular revelations of firm and customer data breaches are bound to have a consequential impact, not only on firm image and the customer engagement process, scope, and depth but also on demands for greater privacy and protection by customers and governments. Thus, IM research should explore the impact of, for example, cross-national privacy regulations on the efficacy of relationship development and management as well as online marketing processes.

Globalization has transformed the way business relationships are formed, managed, and evaluated, and customer engagement is likely to play a prominent role in business-to-business contexts. Business relationships are complex, interpersonal, and interdependent, and relationship marketing efforts can make a difference in promoting common goals and facilitating joint activities that create value for both partners; value that each company could not achieve outside the relationship or with other partners (Palmatier, 2008 ). In an international context, companies need to manage their cross-border relationships more skillfully to address geographic separation, cultural distance, administrative (e.g., currencies, legal jurisdictions) and economic (Katsikeas, Samiee, & Theodosiou, 2006 ; Leonidou, Samiee, Aykol, & Talias, 2014 ; Samiee, Chabowski, & Hult, 2015 ) differences between local and foreign markets, and increased levels of risk and uncertainty inherent in international operations (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009 ; Katsikeas, Skarmeas, & Bello, 2009 ). How does the international environment affect the activities, strategies, structures, and decision-making processes of companies with respect to their business relationships? How can companies manage their overseas business relationships as value-bearing assets? Are cross-border business relationships part of a value-creating network that delivers superior value to the end customer? What is the role of international relationship building and management in overcoming the liability of foreignness? Likewise, the roles of overseas business partners (e.g., distributors, suppliers) in knowledge development, innovation, and goal achievement are relevant and important areas that require research attention.

The fit between IM strategy and international relationships also deserves ongoing research attention. How can companies ensure that their different suppliers and partners abroad are well-aligned with their IM strategy? Strategy standardization offers significant economies of scale in value-adding activities (e.g., R&D, production, marketing), facilitates the development of a consistent corporate/brand image across countries, enhances coordination and control of international operations, and reduces operational and managerial complexity, whereas adaptation is based on the premise that variations between countries necessitate adjustment of the marketing strategy to the idiosyncrasies of each local market. The contingency approach suggests that the appropriateness of the selected IM strategy – typically positioned between the two standardization–adaptation extremes – should be evaluated based on its alignment, or fit, with dominant factors in the international environment, as fit facilitates enhanced performance outcomes (Katsikeas et al., 2006 ). Despite long-standing traditions in these areas, sensemaking in some overarching topics is needed. For example, the pursuit of a market orientation strategy demands sensitivity to local market conditions and IM strategy adaptation. Given the importance of market orientation for many firms, there is a need to better understand how market orientation influences IM strategy. On the one hand, market and customer orientation demand more localized or adapted IM strategies. On the other hand, a high degree of IM strategy standardization seemingly impedes a high degree of market orientation. How do firms reconcile their IM strategy and market orientation efforts? Moreover, how do customer relationships in particular and business relationships in general interact with the perennial issue of adaptation or standardization of IM strategy? Do overseas business relationships help the company determine which specific strategic elements are feasible or desirable to standardize or adapt? If so, under what conditions, and to what degree? To what extent is cocreation possible and appropriate under each IM strategy scenario?

In addition, the assessment of performance in international market operations is an issue that requires particular attention in the IM literature. The relevance and importance of IM resources, strategies, and actions is reflected in the extent to which these favorably influence firm performance outcomes achieved via international market operations and, in turn, contribute to organizational performance. However, there are a large number and wide diversity of IM performance measures employed in the literature, which makes the development of a coherent cumulative body of knowledge in the field particularly challenging (Katsikeas, Morgan, Leonidou, & Hult, 2016 ). Scant attention has been given in IM as to how performance should be conceptualized and operationalized, and studies commonly do not provide a definition or any justification for the assessment of performance that is adopted and for the specific measures used in the context of foreign market operations (Katsikeas, Leonidou, & Morgan, 2000 ; Leonidou, Katsikeas, & Samiee, 2002 ). Given that performance is inherently a multidimensional construct, it is essential that IM researchers be selective in choosing specific performance dimensions, and justify their choice on the basis of some theory-based logic, conceptual framing, and/or for pragmatic reasons. Performance assessment in international market operations should be in line with the theoretical perspective(s) adopted in the study. For example, empirical research grounded in the resource-based view and/or the dynamic capabilities perspective, which underpins much of the strategy-related and competitive advantage work in IM, requires a competitor-centered assessment of performance outcomes; that is, individual performance aspects and items need to be assessed in relation to competition in the foreign market targeted by the firm’s IM strategy (see Katsikeas et al., 2016 ).

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SPECIAL ISSUE

The call for papers for this special issue has been received with much enthusiasm, as demonstrated by the large number of submissions covering a wide range of IM topics. Accordingly, manuscripts accepted for inclusion in this issue represent the diversity of submissions, with each making a unique contribution to the IM body of knowledge. The first article focuses on the sharing economy (SE), which is a timely and important issue that influences business operations across industries worldwide. Kozlenkova, Lee, Xiang, and Palmatier’s meta-analytic effort examines the effects of value-based (i.e., utilitarian, social, hedonic, and sustainability value) and governance-based (i.e., trust) factors on SE participation and investigates their relative effectiveness under different global contingencies (i.e., economic/competitive, cultural, societal, technological, regulatory, and demographic factors). Based on 55 empirical articles, with 60 independent samples from 15 countries, representing 123 correlations across 26,377 customers during the 2009–2019 period, the findings suggest that hedonic value exerts the largest effect on SE participation, followed by trust and utilitarian value, while social value and sustainability have the smallest effects. The analysis reveals a complex pattern of global contingency effects that firms should consider when advancing their entry strategies, formulating governance mechanisms, and evaluating promising markets. Kozlenkova et al. integrate their key insights into three tenets, reflecting the most important and surprising findings. These tenets are grounded in the vitally important roles of inequality, the hierarchy of needs, and governance mechanisms that can serve as a platform for establishing an emerging perspective of global SE participation.

Marketing metrics represent another critically important topic that has received little research attention in IM or IB. Sound managerial decisions and marketing strategy are based on quantitative measures, including outcomes (Moorman & Day, 2016 ). In their contribution to this special issue, Mintz, Currim, Steenkamp, and de Jong focus on metric use in marketing decisions across 16 countries, using a cultural perspective. The authors leverage a rich dataset containing more than 4,300 marketing decisions in more than 1,600 firms across 16 countries. Respondents chose from 24 general metrics pertinent to marketing (12) and financial (12) decisions, plus 6 metrics specific to each of 10 marketing mix decisions. The findings indicate that, for all markets combined, an average of 9 metrics are used per marketing decision. With nearly 12 metrics per decision, South Korean managers use the highest number of metrics, while Japanese managers use the fewest, with approximately 4 metrics per marketing decision. China and India, each with approximately 11 metrics, are close to Korea and are heavy users of marketing metrics, whereas France and the United States, with nearly 6 and 7, respectively, are moderate users of metrics in decision-making. Importantly, satisfaction, awareness, and return on investment are the three most commonly used metrics across markets. In addition, the study finds that metric use is affected by both firm and country culture.

Business-to-business (B2B) electronic platforms (e-platforms) play a critical role in helping exporting firms reach, serve, and penetrate foreign markets. However, the IB literature is unclear about how and under what conditions firms can use B2B e-platforms to boost their export performance outcomes. Drawing on signaling theory, Jean, Kim, Zhou, and Cavusgil propose and empirically test a model that investigates how exporters’ e-platform use affects export sales performance by boosting foreign market contact (i.e., quotations from foreign buyers) and how the institutional environment and export growth strategies influence the e-platform use–foreign market contact link. Using survey and archival lagged data on a sample of 205 exporters that subscribe to Alibaba.com, the authors reveal that e-platform use enhances foreign buyer contact and, in turn, export sales performance. The findings also suggest that the positive impact of e-platform use among exporters is further boosted when they come from regions that have less-developed market intermediaries or under conditions of high institutional distance between the home and host countries. The study also demonstrates that the effect of e-platform use on a foreign buyer contact becomes weaker under conditions of high export market diversification or high product diversification.

Platform-based mobile payments have experienced significant growth worldwide in recent years, partly because they offer unique value for both customers and companies over other digital payment methods. Kumar, Nim, and Agarwal note, however, that patterns of such payment adoption grow differently across countries, with some emerging countries (e.g., China) outperforming developed ones. The authors propose a conceptual model of mobile payment adoption, and develop hypotheses using explanations from the literature on network effects and institutional theory. Based on data collected across 30 countries (17 developed and 13 emerging), the study confirms the existence of network effects and differential influences of perceived value, inertia, and cultural factors on the mobile payment adoption of innovators and imitators. The presence of significant heterogeneity both within and between countries regarding the adoption of mobile payments, which offers additional evidence of leapfrogging by emerging markets with regard to mass mobile payment use, has important implications for theory development and marketing management practice in IB.

Global brands and perceived brand globalness (PBG) research have received much scholarly attention in the IM literature (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 1999 ; Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000 ; Steenkamp et al., 2003 ). Contributing to this growing literature, Mandler, Bartsch, and Han tap the potential aversion to globalization among consumers and examine sentiments with respect to branding as the basis for corporate decisions regarding the appropriateness of global branding. The authors leverage signaling theory to conduct two studies that (1) assess brand credibility on the basis of consumer PBG and perceived brand localness (PBL) across two countries (Germany and South Korea), and (2) examine the role of three moderators (perceived country of origin, category social signaling value, and category cultural grounding). The findings demonstrate that both PBG and PBL are positively associated with brand credibility across markets; a split-sample test offers a contrast between globalized and globalizing markets, and demonstrates a relationship between brand credibility and PBL in Germany but not in South Korea, where brand credibility is associated with PBG. The study reports the impact of brand origin on brand credibility and demonstrates that effect of PBL on brand credibility does not vary with the brand’s origin in Germany, but the effect is stronger for domestic brands than for foreign brands in South Korea. The contrast between consumer perceptions in globalized and globalizing markets offers fruitful theoretical and managerial implications, while raising a series of consumer and IM strategy questions that have the potential to expand the boundaries of IM knowledge.

Origin-related research and animosity with reference to consumer perceptions, preferences, and choice have played major roles in the marketing literature (Klein, Ettenson, & Morris, 1998 ; Lu, Heslop, Thomas, & Kwan, 2016 ; Samiee, 1994 ; Verlegh & Steenkamp, 1999 ). In line with this stream of IM research, Westjohn, Magnusson, Peng, and Jung contrast animosity’s effect on product judgement versus willingness to buy. The first part of their contribution consists of a meta-analysis of 43 post–Klein et al. ( 1998 ) published works focusing on animosity, involving 18 nations, to address the inconsistencies reported in the literature. The authors follow this with an examination of the contextual role of culture on animosity effects using six experiments in the United States and China. They leverage three Hofstede dimensions (i.e., collectivism, long-term orientation, and power distance), measured at the individual level. The results indicate that collectivism and long-term orientation lessen the negative effects of animosity and support the position that animosity’s effect on willingness to buy is stronger than it is on product judgments. The findings offer useful insights for managers regarding, among others, consumers’ attitudes toward brands. Although the findings indicate that product judgements are not affected by animosity, the results indicate that product sales could be affected. In addition to demonstrating cross-cultural differences, the authors find that cultural values influence consumers’ willingness to buy.

The establishment, development, and management of cross-border interorganizational exchange relationships has received considerable research attention in the IB literature (e.g., Bello & Gilliland, 1997 ; Robson, Katsikeas, Schlegelmilch, & Pramböck, 2019 ; Skarmeas, Katsikeas, & Schlegelmilch, 2002 ). The starting point for Obadia and Robson’s study is the inconsistent findings in the literature regarding the effects of cooperation on performance in exporter–importer relationships. The authors argue that the relationship of cooperation with performance in IB associations has an inverted U shape; at high levels, the performance impact of cooperation weakens greatly and becomes negative. They also find that the importer’s specific investments mediate the link between cooperation and performance, which advances the idea that relational phenomena affect exporter performance only if they foster an importer’s productive behaviors. The study also points to the role of interdependence in moderating the inverted U-shaped relationship between cooperation and the importer’s specific investments. The findings reveal that a limited increase of interdependence enhances the impact of low to moderate levels of cooperation on the importer’s specific investments.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Overall, criticisms of IM scholarship (e.g., Buckley, 2002a ; Douglas & Craig, 1992 ; Kotabe, 2001 ) are generally well placed and to the point. Marketing and IM are pivotal to a firm’s existence and should play overarching roles in charting firms’ management and strategy. Yet IM has largely abandoned the “big picture” by focusing on microresearch and behavioral questions, notably, country-of-origin, and cross-cultural consumer behavior topics (Day, 1996 ; Kotabe, 2001 ; Leonidou et al., 2017 ).

Much work remains for IM scholars to advance the field by placing greater emphasis and effort on strategy-related topics and exploring macro-areas of business: for example, by bridging IM strategy with regard to market entry modes and globalization and addressing issues related to disruptive external change to global supply chains and e-commerce, among others. Indeed, Buckley’s ( 2002b ) position regarding the past successes of IB scholarship in exploring international market entry (the “big picture”) may seem premature if one agrees that marketing, a central concern of which is the customer and the idiosyncrasies associated with the demand-side, is largely absent from much of this success. The relative absence of “marketing” in much of the market entry literature is a call for IB and IM scholars to leverage this critical aspect of firms’ internationalization decisions. This view is consistent with Drucker’s position that “Concern and responsibility for marketing must therefore permeate all areas of the enterprise” (Drucker, 1954 , pp. 38–39). Additionally, the fact that IB and IM are close in their fundamentals, and that the IM knowledge structure significantly taps into management scholarship (Buckley, 2002a ; Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ), further validates marketing’s relevance and centrality in the broader international business thought. Consequently, the perceived proximity of these disciplines appears to be greater than one might expect. A major strength of IB has been its ability to embrace and integrate other business disciplines from which crucial research questions emerge (Peng, 2004 ). A more marketing- and customer-centric view of IB research is also in line with this position.

There appears to be ample research opportunity to adopt a marketing mindset in IB research and to explicitly introduce marketing considerations to achieve a marketing-based view of IB activities, most notably the macro-issues, including market entry mode choice, international expansion patterns, cross-border buyer–seller relationships, and strategic alliances. Although this special issue is primarily intended to inspire and broadly direct researchers’ focus on developing IM projects that fill key knowledge gaps in IM thought, in keeping with Drucker’s and Levitt’s positions regarding the marketing purpose of all enterprises, we very much hope that this work offers pathways for general IB scholars to embrace, leverage, and contribute to IM knowledge.

The proportion of marketing articles reported by Griffith et al. ( 2008 ) is likely inflated, as two of the six journals surveyed are dedicated entirely to international marketing topics.

This issue maybe exacerbated by the use of varying terminologies across disciplines; however, despite marketing’s centrality in business, “marketing” and “consumer” or “customer” are rare terms in much IB research (cf. Anand & Kogut, 1997 ; Hejazi, Tang, & Wang, 2020 ).

MSI is a non-profit organization led by academic researchers, in collaborations with industry, aiming to address marketing issues faced by firms. Although we do not observe an ongoing internationally related research momentum in its current list of priorities, MSI has periodically addressed selective IM-related topics.

We also calculated citation per year to account for the timing of the published works; however, as Tables 1 and 2 show, among the highly cited works, the most-cited set and the order of articles remain largely the same.

This includes intracorporate export transactions involving parts and semifinished products. International firms frequently require subsidiaries to effectively compete in quality, price, and service with other suppliers, effectively marketing themselves as the premier supplier to the internal customer. Even if intrafirm export sales were guaranteed, as is the case in some firms, the final assembled product must still compete with other firms in every respect. In other words, the marketing function of intracorporate export transactions is merely pushed to the firm assembling and selling the final product.

Several journals, led by Journal of International Marketing and International Marketing Review , are dedicated to publishing scholarly IM research.

This is based on the spatial configuration generated by multidimensional scaling for works published in 34 scholarly journals (2,709 articles) in the 2004–2008 period. Other analyses (factor analysis and clustering) produced slightly fewer knowledge groups.

Estimates of the number of publications in this IM domain vary. For example, Samiee and Chabowski ( 2021 ) identify more than 482 country-of-origin publications listed in the Web of Science database, whereas Lu et al. ( 2016 ) estimate that the number of country-of-origin-related publications exceed 600.

The International Chamber of Commerce estimates the global economic value of counterfeiting to reach US$2.3 trillion by 2022. https://iccwbo.org/media-wall/news-speeches/global-impacts-counterfeiting-piracy-reach-us4-2-trillion-2022/ .

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Samiee, S., Katsikeas, C.S. & Hult, G.T.M. The overarching role of international marketing: Relevance and centrality in research and practice. J Int Bus Stud 52 , 1429–1444 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-021-00433-2

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A systematic review of customer behavior in business-to-business markets and agenda for future research

Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing

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Article publication date: 28 March 2023

Issue publication date: 18 December 2023

The purpose of this paper is to offer a comprehensive overview of current research on customer behavior in the business-to-business (B2B) context and propose a research agenda for future studies. Despite being a relatively recent area of interest for academics and practitioners, a literature review that synthesizes existing knowledge into coherent topics and outlines a research agenda for future research is still lacking.

Design/methodology/approach

Drawing on a systematic literature review of 219 papers and using a text-mining approach based on the Latent Dirichlet Allocation algorithm, this paper enhances the existing knowledge of B2B customer behavior and provides a descriptive analysis of the literature.

From this review, ten major research topics are found and analyzed. These topics were analyzed through the lens of the Theory, Context, Characteristics and Method framework, providing a summary of key findings from prior studies. Additionally, an integrative framework was developed, offering insights into future research directions.

Originality/value

This study presents a novel contribution to the field of B2B by providing a systematic review of the topic of customer behavior, filling a gap in the literature and offering a valuable resource for scholars and managers seeking to advance the field.

• Future trends
• Business-to-business
• Text mining
• Customer behavior
• Research agenda

Bilro, R.G. , Loureiro, S.M.C. and Souto, P. (2023), "A systematic review of customer behavior in business-to-business markets and agenda for future research", Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing , Vol. 38 No. 13, pp. 122-142. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-07-2022-0313

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Ricardo Godinho Bilro, Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro and Pedro Souto.

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial & non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

The practice of business-to-business (B2B) dates back several thousand years, and it is possible to find evidence of it as far as ancient Greece ( Michell, 1940 ). However, it was not until the past four decades that significant studies on B2B marketing emerged, and we are now in a stage of fast-paced development ( Mora Cortez and Johnston, 2017 ; Zhang et al. , 2019 ). Although still underrepresented within the broader scope of marketing, B2B research is becoming increasingly relevant and an exciting field of study, leading to a richer body of literature ( LaPlaca and Katrichis, 2009 ; Mora Cortez et al. , 2021 ).

B2B research presents unique challenges for researchers, often requiring approaches different from those used in business-to-customer (B2C) domains ( Wiersema, 2013 ). The buying process in B2C deals with more complex and emotional behaviors involving households of few customers ( Fetscherin and Heinrich, 2015 ), whereas B2B buying involves organizations with dozens of individuals from different backgrounds and motivations in the purchase process ( Lilien, 2016 ). The data for research is also far scarcer and more difficult to collect than in B2C settings, requiring the involvement of several cooperating organizations ( Gould et al. , 2016 ; Kumar and Pansari, 2016 ). Additionally, the B2B buying process is complex and heterogeneous ( Aarikka-Stenroos et al. , 2018 ). B2B transactions often involve products requiring significant expertise for the purchase decision, such as titanium dioxide for the paper industry or polyvinylchloride for the plastic industry. Finally, the B2B marketing field has undergone fundamental changes in recent years, and we can observe an evolutionary process in the B2B marketing efforts, with an evolutionary shift from the exchange philosophy (transaction-based marketing) to a behavioral philosophy (relationship-based marketing) ( Kaski et al. , 2017 ; Xu and Hao, 2021 ). For this research, we will indistinctively use the terms “B2B buyer” and “B2B customer.”

Because of these differences, understanding the behavior of industrial customers and the B2B buying process remains a leading research priority with high potential for academics and practitioners ( Lilien, 2016 ; Xu and Hao, 2021 ). Therefore, research on B2B customer behavior is essential to organize and systematize existing knowledge ( Grewal et al. , 2015 ; Lilien, 2016 ) and combine it with new perspectives, steering future researchers to improve the understanding of B2C customer behavior. This study offers a valuable and original contribution to the field by summarizing the literature’s main topics and discussing future research avenues, proposing a comprehensive research agenda that can potentially unlock new theoretical and managerial knowledge about B2B customer behavior and benefiting researchers and practitioners in the B2B marketing domains.

This paper provides a systematic review of the existing literature on B2B customer behavior. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, previous studies have explored various aspects of B2B advertising ( Swani et al. , 2020 ), B2B market segmentation ( Mora Cortez et al. , 2021 ) or B2B branding ( Leek and Christodoulides, 2011 ). However, there is still no similar systematic review on the topic, which evidences this paper’s timely and relevant contribution. This study seeks to address this gap by mapping the existing knowledge about B2B customer behavior, identifying and summarizing the main topics arising from the existing body of knowledge, contributing with an integrative framework and, finally, identifying future research avenues and offering a research agenda. The analysis is based on a systematic literature review of 219 papers, which were analyzed using a text-mining approach based on the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) algorithm. The results of this review reveal ten major research topics on B2B customer behavior, and we apply the Theory, Context, Characteristics and Method (TCCM) framework to summarize the main topics ( Paul and Rosado-Serrano, 2019 ).

This study is of practical relevance for academics and managers, offering a descriptive overview of the core topics in B2B customer behavior. It also proposes an integrative framework for those seeking to deepen their knowledge in this field and a future research agenda, contributing to the evolution of research in this area and the advancement of new knowledge in B2B customer behavior.

2. Methodology

This paper offers a systematic literature review and future research agenda for B2B customer behavior. We apply a systematic literature review methodology, as it allows researchers to identify, select, critically evaluate and synthesize the literature in a rigorous, transparent and replicable way, leading to solid outcomes in a specific research domain ( Christofi et al. , 2017 ; Tranfield et al. , 2003 ). This review method has several advantages when compared to traditional reviews: improves the review process and outcome quality ( Leonidou et al. , 2018 ); reduces bias and errors ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ); increases the process validity because of its process replicability ( Wang and Chugh, 2014 ); allows the information synthesis and mapping of a specific research topic ( Paul and Criado, 2020 ); and offers frameworks that researchers and practitioners may use ( Kumar et al. , 2020 ; Paul, 2015 ).

Systematic literature reviews are common in several exact sciences, such as medicine, chemistry and others ( Harris et al. , 2006 ; Moher et al. , 2009 ), and they are an increasing trend in the management and marketing fields of study, applied in recent studies published in the premier and high-impact management journals ( Cartwright et al. , 2021 ; Hayes and Kelliher, 2022 ; Kumar et al. , 2020 ; Rosado-serrano et al. , 2018 ). The systematic literature review is the appropriate method for this research, as it provides a comprehensive and high-quality state-of-the-art review of the research focusing on B2B customer behavior.

Review papers can have a variety of forms, such as a structured review focusing on widely used methods, theories and constructs ( Kahiya, 2018 ), a framework-based review ( Paul and Benito, 2018 ), a hybrid narrative with a framework for setting a future research agenda ( Bilro and Loureiro, 2020 ), a theory-based review ( Gilal et al. , 2019 ), a meta-analysis review ( Knoll and Matthes, 2017 ), a bibliometric review ( Randhawa et al. , 2016 ) and a review aiming for model/framework development ( Paul and Mas, 2020 ). For this paper, the authors adopt a hybrid narrative with a framework review comprising a structured review followed by a TCCM framework.

2.1 Search strategy and search terms

Researchers conducted an extensive search on the “Web of Science” (WOS) and SCOPUS electronic databases using the six Ws of the literature review method ( Callahan, 2014 ) and the well-established guidelines for review articles search method found in previous reviews ( Altuntas Vural, 2017 ; Paul and Criado, 2020 ). WOS and SCOPUS are renowned electronic databases; the content of their collections is selective and consistent; and independent detailed editorial processes ensure journal quality ( Clarivate, 2021 ). The use of the journal as the criterion to assess the research quality is widely adopted ( Chavarro et al. , 2018 ; Loureiro et al. , 2020 ).

Researchers developed a list of search terms with broad coverage to minimize the possibility of excluding a search term that could generate relevant studies ( Leonidou et al. , 2018 ; Müller-Seitz, 2012 ). The search was only limited to the research process timeline. So it was possible to capture all relevant literature irrespective of the publication date, including all papers published in scholarly journals until July 2022. The keyword selection was based on its relevance to the topic, and the search focused on variables endeavoring to explain customers’ behavior in both spellings “behavior” and “behaviour.” The words “customers” and the “buyers” were used to incorporate the different decision-makers, as we face transactions involving organizations. The research results were restricted to B2B definitions commonly found in the literature, such as “industrial,” “B2B,” “Business-to-Business,” “b-to-b” and “BTB.” The search was conducted for keywords in the title, abstract and keywords ( Paul and Criado, 2020 ). The final query for our search is: TS=( ( CONSUMER OR BUYER OR CUSTOMER )  AND  BEHAVIO * R   AND (B2B OR   BUSINESS  TO  BUSINESS  OR BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS OR BTB OR B-T-B  OR  INDUSTRIAL OR B-B)) .

2.2 Selection criteria and data extraction

The results were limited to articles and reviews, and the chosen categories focus on business and management: business; management; economics; operations research; management sciences; and business finance. The search resulted in 8,631 articles at SCOPUS and 7,206 at WOS, of which 711 remained after successive filters were applied and duplications were removed. The sequential reading of titles, abstracts and articles allowed the identification of 219 articles independently reviewed by two researchers ( Macpherson and Holt, 2007 ), assuring the focus on this review topic. Only studies that meet all the inclusion criteria specified in the review were included ( Appendix ). The strict criteria specified in the systematic review are linked to the need to base the review on the best-quality papers available. Our final pool of papers is the outcome of this process ( Figure 1 ).

3. Descriptive analysis of literature

The literature about B2B customer behavior dates back to 1971. The Journal of Marketing Research published a paper by Cardozo and Cagley (1971) , which undertook an experimental study of industrial buyer behavior. However, most of our final pool of papers were published only after the millennium ( n = 185; 84.47%), and slightly half of the studies were published in the past ten years ( n = 106; 48.4%), reinforcing the arising relevance of this topic among the marketing literature ( Figure 2 ).

Most of the studies are empirical ( n = 185; 84.47%), and most are quantitative ( n = 145, 66.21%). We can see flourishing empirical studies after 2007 and some peaks in conceptual research ( Figure 2 ). From our final pool of papers, 158 (72.15%) used a theoretical context to support and expand their findings. The analysis reveals that the social exchange theory (SET) ( Blau, 1964 ; Thibaut and Kelley, 1959 ) is the most frequently used theory among the papers ( n = 27; 19%), followed by the transaction cost economic theory (TCE) ( Williamson, 1993 ) ( n = 13; 9%) and the relational exchange theory (RET) ( Macneil, 1980 ) ( n = 12; 8%). Table 1 shows the most used theories for at least three papers.

Almost half of our final pool of papers were published in the sectorial journals of “Industrial Marketing Management” ( n = 70; 32%) and “Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing” ( n = 37; 17%) ( Table 2 ). The analysis also shows that most studies are published in top-tier marketing journals. Tier journals ranking AJG – Academic Journal Guide – 4*, 4 and 3 ratings (former ABS –chartered Academic Business School ranking) have demonstrated interest in this topic, such as the “Journal of Marketing,” “Journal of Marketing Research,” “Journal of The Academy of Marketing Science,” “International Journal of Research in Marketing” and “Journal of Business Research” ( Table 2 ). This analysis suggests that these journals have been highly receptive to publishing articles on this topic and that marketing scholars are positioning their work and articulating its importance to mainstream marketing and business theory and practice.

4. Thematic analysis of the literature

4.1 topic analysis procedure.

The topic analysis of the final pool of papers explores the complete paper’s text to capture the full available information and highlight the latent discussions. Full papers were downloaded and transformed into ASCII text (a common encoding format), and researchers conducted the topic analysis using the R software, an open-source statistical tool used for data analysis ( Breuer, 2017 ). We use the packages tm and topic modeling to transform the text into a corpus, producing the document-term matrix and computing the topics through LDA algorithm ( Blei et al. , 2003 ), which has been successfully applied in recent research ( El Akrouchi et al. , 2021 ; Xiang et al. , 2017 ).

Distinct text-mining tasks are applied to the textual content of the papers. The data cleaning and stemming started by converting the text into lowercase, and numbers, punctuation and whitespaces were removed. Next, we removed common stop words in each sentence, as those words do not have any analytic value. Finally, stemming was applied to reduce all words to their root to avoid related words being considered different ( Wu et al. , 2017 ). The remaining text was computed into a document-term matrix (DTM), a matrix-format structure where each row represents a paper, each column a word and within each cell appears the number of times a word occurs within a paper. The number of topics in LDA is an input parameter that must be set previously, so we resort to existing measures ( Cao et al. , 2009 ; Griffiths and Steyvers, 2004 ) to compute the ideal number of topics ( Figure 3 ), with the set of possible topics ranging from K = 2 to K = 40. The log-likelihood and perplexity start establishing around K = 8, reaching their optimal values around K = 15 (minimize K = 6 and maximize K = 10). The strategy for obtaining the ideal topic number is given by the proximity score showing a clear peak, and the nearest neighbor score flattens ( Grant et al. , 2013 ). Uncertainties about the point of flattening can be solved by comparing the measures in use ( Figure 3 ). Therefore, for the current analysis, K = 8 was selected.

The topic models were conducted using LDA with a Gibbs sampling technique (a Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm), used in this research because of its convergence and performance capabilities. LDA is a mixed-membership algorithm widely used for clustering text into latent topics ( Blei et al. , 2003 ). LDA is based on a hierarchical Bayesian analysis and calculates the posterior probability of each word found in the text and each paper belonging to a latent topic. Because of its mixed-membership model feature, each paper may belong to multiple topics (several discussions being addressed in the text).

The profiling of each topic was delineated by analyzing the document-topic classification probabilities using the package tidytext. To know which papers are associated with each topic, we can examine the per-document-per-topic probabilities called γ (gamma). Besides estimating each topic as a mixture of words, LDA also models each document as a mixture of topics. The more words in a document are assigned to that topic, the more weight (gamma) will go on that document-topic classification. In the analysis, gammas present high values, which may be because of lower correlations between the topics. Table 3 shows the top three articles per topic. The content of each topic is discussed and analyzed in the next section.

4.2 Topics discussion

4.2.1 t1. buyer–supplier relationships.

The buyer–supplier relationship is a prevailing concept in the B2B literature. Effective exchanges between buying and supplying firms are crucial, yet the conflicting goals within the relationship can often lead to conflicts, which pose a significant managerial challenge ( Ellegaard and Andersen, 2015 ). These conflicts stem from differences in behaviors and expectations between the exchange partners, resulting in uncertainty and a breakdown in the relationship, even when parties behave better than expected ( Wang et al. , 2010 ). Common sources of conflict include disparities in projected supply/demand, product quality and service performance ( Ellegaard and Andersen, 2015 ). Conflict resolution processes can lead to common behavior patterns such as avoidance or lack of communication, which gives awareness of why exchange relationships that hit a downward spiral can be difficult to secure ( Wang et al. , 2010 ).

To overcome these issues, buyers and sellers should aim to achieve joint competitive advantages through inter-organizational goals, congruence and trusting relationships, leading to improvements in profitability, future expectations and relationship functioning ( Jap, 2001 ). Partners should also find ways to collaborate and avoid opportunist behaviors, achieving a trusting relationship ( Zhang et al. , 2019 ). The positive effects of collaboration on the relationship can be seen in the restoration of trust, tolerance and avoidance of opportunism ( Zhang et al. , 2019 ), making it critical for such relationships to last. Superior buyer–supplier relationships enhance the potential to yield solid outcomes for both parties, reinforcing the partners’ attractiveness in the selection, formation and choice of B2B partnerships, leading to successful outcomes in competition ( Gould et al. , 2016 ).

4.2.2 T2. Bargaining power

B2B customer behavior and relationships are typically formed by a contract between two or more legally independent parties. The ability of each party to achieve its objectives is contingent upon its relative bargaining power ( Porter, 1980 ). Most aspects influencing bargaining power are often challenging to change, depending on characteristics of the production process, industry characteristics or volume of purchases ( Dampérat and Jolibert, 2009 ). Buyers and sellers seek to exploit asymmetries in their relationship during the negotiations in distinct ways to gain strategic advantages. In certain markets, buyers have acquired advanced procurement techniques and established considerably stronger negotiation positions through control of the procurement process and powerful price negotiation tools ( Gadde and Wynstra, 2018 ).

On the contrary, suppliers concentrate on initiating, signaling and disclosing behaviors to enhance their relationships with buyers, with deliberate efforts to understand their customers’ business conditions, adjust to market changes and disclose information about themselves that reinforce the buyer’s trust ( Vieira and Brito, 2015 ). The influence of suppliers on buyers’ purchasing behavior is evident in their ability to shape more discerning buyers, supporting the notion that favorable and well-formed beliefs about a manufacturer can positively impact its customers’ purchasing decisions ( Bonner and Calantone, 2005 ). The bargaining power is also affected by other factors such as uncertainty, risk and business partners’ strengths. In scenarios where both parties possess significant sources of power, power is not used in a confrontational manner but rather as a means of fortifying the collaborative aspects of the business relationship ( Gadde and Wynstra, 2018 ).

4.2.3 T3. Partnership commitment

Partnership commitment refers to a firm’s dedication to maintaining a close and lasting relationship with another firm ( Kim and Frazier, 1997 ). This commitment enables independent partners to work together, better serve customer needs and achieve higher performance levels ( Morgan and Hunt, 1994 ). The measurement of commitment varies across partnerships and can take the form of an intention to continue the relationship, the willingness to make short-term sacrifices, confidence in the relationship’s stability, the relationship’s relevance or the internalization of the partner firm’s norms and values ( Kim and Frazier, 1997 ; Kim et al. , 2011 ).

Different dimensions of commitment elicit unique behaviors from partners. Affective commitment promotes extra-role behaviors, while calculative commitment undermines them, whereas normative commitment induces little change in extra-role behaviors ( Gruen et al. , 2000 ; Kim et al. , 2011 ). Each effect on partners’ behaviors is because of distinct psychological responses associated with each type of commitment involved ( Kim et al. , 2011 ). Firms can also generate relational commitment by fostering alliances and promoting collaborative learning ( Cheng et al. , 2022 ). It can maximize the knowledge gained from partners and protect their business from being appropriately ( Li et al. , 2017 ).

4.2.4 T4. Interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal relationships have recently increasingly interested B2B marketing researchers and practitioners ( Aarikka-Stenroos et al. , 2018 ; Wiatr Borg and Vagn Freytag, 2012 ). The essence of any interpersonal relationship lies in interaction ( Kelley, 1979 ). However, interactions occur on various levels, in different contexts and for different reasons, with existing research suggesting that there is no best way to understand and manage them ( Aarikka-Stenroos et al. , 2018 ). Interpersonal relationships often relate to establishing those interactions, specifically in the B2B sales process setting. Research offers different perspectives to understand this dyad better, namely, the firms’ environment and strategies, the firm’s relationships and information gathering, the sales cycle and development or the sales characteristics and selling behavior ( Méndez-Picazo et al. , 2021 ; Wiatr Borg and Vagn Freytag, 2012 ). However, not all methods of understanding and managing interpersonal relationships are equally effective, and dealing with interpersonal relationships in a sales process depends on the level at which the analysis occurs ( Crosby et al. , 1990 ; Wiatr Borg and Vagn Freytag, 2012 ). Adopting an integrated perspective that encompasses all levels of analysis offers valuable insights into effectively addressing interpersonal relationships in B2B sales processes ( Dampérat and Jolibert, 2009 ; Ellegaard and Andersen, 2015 ; Wiatr Borg and Vagn Freytag, 2012 ).

4.2.5 T5. Brand sensitivity

Brand sensitivity is a key concept in B2B customer behavior. It refers to the likelihood of choosing a well-known brand over a generic or unknown brand ( Hutton, 1997 ). From a B2B perspective, it also represents the extent to which brand information and business associations are positively evaluated in organizational buying decisions ( Brown et al. , 2012 ). However, the prevailing view of the B2B buying process posits that firms are primarily rational decision-makers ( Brown et al. , 2011 ), differing in the importance they allocate to brands, which is a source of distress in designing B2B branding strategies ( Sharma and Sengupta, 2020 ). To fully comprehend B2B customer behavior, it is crucial to examine brand sensitivity and understand under which conditions brands become more relevant in B2B contexts. Understanding the conditions under which the brand increases its relevance in B2B environments can help managers adapt their sales and marketing strategies and make them appealing to a specific set of target segments, helping to achieve the profitability goals more successfully ( Zablah et al. , 2010 ).

Brand sensitivity is a multi-faceted construct encompassing three dimensions: brand-related information acquisition, brand information processing and buying center memory. The nature of buyer–seller relationships and the number of supplier brands are also known to impact brand sensitivity ( Sharma and Sengupta, 2020 ). Moreover, research suggests that brand sensitivity can exhibit a non-linear relationship with the importance of the purchase and its complexity ( Brown et al. , 2012 ). Thus, B2B marketing efforts should aim to establish strong brands and communicate their values in a market with multiple competing brands. This may require rethinking conventional wisdom and emphasizing the brand even when it may appear less relevant to business customers. Doing so is likely to impact performance positively ( Brown et al. , 2012 ; Sharma and Sengupta, 2020 ).

4.2.6 T6. Procurement and sales processes

Procurement refers to the process of sourcing and acquiring goods or services from an external source, typically for business purposes ( Laffont and Tirole, 1993 ). It is influenced by the buyer’s perception of their business strategies that affect their priorities, decisions and actions, serving as a mental model for the buyer to achieve a specific task ( Strandvik et al. , 2012 ). This process is becoming an essential component of firms’ acquisitions of external resources, with suppliers increasingly offering differentiated value propositions by incorporating services into their offerings ( van der Valk, 2008 ). However, procurement is not a static or standard activity, and its context is constantly redefined by social and economic changes ( Torvinen and Ulkuniemi, 2016 ).

In response to the changing competitive landscape, B2B organizations have adapted to innovative sales processes that align with new buying behaviors of B2B decision-makers, moving beyond traditional seller-oriented models ( Strandvik et al. , 2012 ). One of the emerging trends in procurement is the incentive to abandon the traditional practices of doing business and move forward to focus on relationship quality ( Rauyruen and Miller, 2007 ), partnerships, networks and/or strategic alliances ( Torvinen and Ulkuniemi, 2016 ). However, the sales process is not always seamless, as the seller’s value proposition may not always match the buyer’s value requirements. To be genuinely customer-oriented, firms must find ways to bridge this gap and create value for customers ( Strandvik et al. , 2012 ). Sellers aim to deliver value for customers, primarily from the solutions they sell and their skills and behaviors, while buyers have expectations about innovativeness, future orientation, long-term relationships and responsiveness to their specific needs ( Kaski et al. , 2017 ). Understanding the gaps between buyers and sellers can help recognize the significance of the sales process and value co-creation in B2B environments ( Kaski et al. , 2017 ; Loureiro et al. , 2020 ).

4.2.7 T7. Cultural differences

Cultural differences result from variations in cultural values. They influence perceptions and play a relevant role in people’s behaviors ( Hofstede, 1991 ). A company’s country of origin and market significantly impact customer behavior ( Bilro and Cunha, 2021 ). Various researchers have extensively studied the relationship between business and culture ( Armuña et al. , 2020 ; Belchior and Lyons, 2021 ; Canestrino et al. , 2020 ). Scholars agree on a positive correlation between business relationships and cultural similarity ( Keep et al. , 1998 ; Steward et al. , 2010 ). The cultural analysis can be conducted from a single-country perspective, examining cultural factors, such as self-construal, individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance ( Laufer et al. , 2005 ) or from a multi-country comparison, evaluating cultural belonging (i.e. collectivistic vs individualistic) effects on customers’ behavioral intentions ( Baghi and Gabrielli, 2019 ). Research has demonstrated that individuals in a collectivistic culture perceive a prompt resolution of product failure as fairer, leading to higher customer satisfaction, than those in individualistic cultures ( Muralidharan et al. , 2019 ). Additionally, the international B2B relationships connect a firm’s national culture to behavior predispositions according to their cultural dimensions ( Xu and Hao, 2021 ). The tension between culturally different partners when cooperating for the common benefit has significant consequences for both parties, endangering the relationship’s stability and contributing significantly to relationship failures ( Bilro and Cunha, 2021 ; Gould et al. , 2016 ; Xu and Hao, 2021 ).

4.2.8 T8. Salespeople

Salespeople refer to the trade-in occupation within a firm, selling goods or services directly to customers or other businesses or organizations for monetary compensation. Sales can be conducted in-person (e.g. in retail stores or dealerships) or using online communication tools. A successful salesperson is perceived as someone skilled enough to persuade other people, especially in a business or professional setting, to buy their products ( Delpechitre et al. , 2019 ), which highlights the relevance of suppliers’ behavior in customer behavioral intentions, such as supplier loyalty or customer satisfaction ( Blaese et al. , 2021 ; Selnes and Gønhaug, 2000 ). While it is expected that salespeople have a good understanding of customer needs, research has shown that this is often not the case, with salespeople failing to provide an adequate value proposition to customers ( Homburg et al. , 2009 ; Rapp et al. , 2014 ). These failures can result in less buyer satisfaction and commitment to the supplier ( Kumar et al. , 2013 ; Palmatier et al. , 2007 ). For salespeople to be effective, they must have a clear understanding of customer expectations and act in a manner that satisfies those expectations, reducing failures and increasing positive outcomes in relational exchanges ( Haas et al. , 2012 ). Salespeople that can provide a proper value proposition to customers transform themselves into a valuable point of differentiation ( Kaski et al. , 2017 ).

4.2.9 T9. Supplier selection

Firms of all sizes and from all industry sectors are active buyers, and the selection of their supply chain is of foremost importance ( Kim et al. , 2010 ). The literature emphasizes the importance of quality, cost, delivery and flexibility attributes when choosing a supplier ( Voss et al. , 2009 ). Noteworthy, there seems to be a difference between the perceived value of these attributes and the actual practice, as the operational practices may not align with buyers’ strategic priorities ( Verma and Pullman, 1998 ). Research suggests that managers responsible for supplier selection may prioritize cost and delivery capability over quality, an issue that deserves thoughtful attention ( Alikhani et al. , 2019 ).

Supplier selection also needs to be understood under the process stages, as buyers ground their purchasing behavior in several steps or stages before the supplier selection is made. Research highlights that it is essential to understand the choice phase (which is the most visible part), comprising the buyer problem acknowledgment, the criteria definition and the supplier qualification and the quality of the steps that precede it ( de Boer et al. , 2001 ). Additionally, the differences in supplier selection criteria and buyer behavior across various industry sectors should also be considered ( Ghymn et al. , 1999 ). However, it is essential to note that these differences do not dictate the suitability of a specific decision process – as more suitable for a specific sector – neither the specific industry nor the criteria used to determine the correctness of the buyer decision. Overall, situational characteristics, such as the number of suppliers available, the availability of historical information or the importance of the purchase, are more determinative of the suitability of that decision ( Alikhani et al. , 2019 ; de Boer et al. , 2001 ).

4.2.10 T10. Cooperation and interactions

Developing joint solutions through buyer–seller interaction requires meticulous attention from all involved parties. By fostering interaction and facilitating joint solution development and co-creation, firms can significantly increase their chances of success ( Caruana et al. , 2020 ; Vargo and Lusch, 2011 ). However, interaction can be frustrating if both parties adopt and promote transactional views of solutions instead of relational views ( Tuli et al. , 2007 ). Research shows that firms have been pursuing several approaches to improve the success of their interactions. One such approach is adaptive selling, which entails adjusting sales behaviors to enhance customer-oriented selling during interactions ( Franke and Park, 2006 ). Another is interfirm adaptation and perspective-taking, which allows for a deep understanding of mutual needs and motivations to co-develop solutions that strengthen cooperation ( Xu and Hao, 2021 ).

Other researchers have emphasized the relevance of a more interactive approach to inter-organizational relationships, such as inter-organizational cooperation based on the development of trust or commitment between the parties as precursors to cooperation ( Heide and Miner, 1992 ). When executed effectively, such approaches result in cooperative relationships that are profitable and valuable for both parties involved ( Kim et al. , 2010 ).

5. Discussion and implications for future research agenda

Following prior systematic literature reviews ( Cartwright et al. , 2021 ; Hayes and Kelliher, 2022 ; Vrontis and Christofi, 2021 ), our research aims to review customer behavior in the B2B context and proposes a research agenda for future studies. Our study consolidates knowledge in this area and highlights several ways to improve its understanding. This research discusses its findings and future research agenda resorting to the well-known TCCM ( Loureiro et al. , 2021 ; Paul and Rosado-Serrano, 2019 ; Terjesen et al. , 2016 ). Additionally, an integrative framework is presented to enable future researchers to formulate novel conceptual models (as depicted in Figure 4 ).

5.1 Future research directions – theory

Three core theories are the most used as foundation support of the analyzed articles: SET, TCE and RET. Others are the resource-based view of firms and resource dependence. The SET establishes that social behavior results from an exchange process that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs ( Anaza and Rutherford, 2014 ; Ellegaard and Andersen, 2015 ; Sales Baptista, 2014 ). Therefore, business partners tend to weigh social relationships’ potential benefits and risks. Business relationships require a long-term process, mutual respect and the acceptance of the other as a partner and co-producer of value, not just a passive element ( Li et al. , 2017 ). TCE focuses on cost and efficiency to stipulate a relationship and uses relationships as management structures to reduce hazards ( Lui et al. , 2009 ; Steinle et al. , 2014 ). The resource-based view theory refers that the competitive advantage results from accumulated resources and capabilities that are unusual, valuable, non-substitutable and difficult to imitate by the firm’s competitors ( Corsaro, 2015 ). This theory regards the firm as the primary unit of analysis ( Mols, 2019 ). The RD theory analyses how the external resources, the internal resources and the organization’s capabilities affect the organization’s behavior ( Bonner and Calantone, 2005 ).

Other theories less used can be suggested to support further development of this theme, such as Attribution Theory ( Mir et al. , 2017 ; Selnes and Gønhaug, 2000 ), Service-Dominant Logic ( Aitken and Paton, 2016 ) and Cognitive Dissonance Theory ( Kim et al. , 2011 ). The power dependence theory is becoming more relevant in studies since 2001 to reflect the power of enduring relationships ( Skarmeas and Katsikeas, 2001 ). This theory treats power as inherent in the relationship rather than the partners involved ( Prior and Keränen, 2020 ). Although the theories of power can be considered ( Meehan and Wright, 2012 ; Narayandas and Rangan, 2004 ), this one should be further explored in the future. New theories should be sought in different fields of knowledge and brought to the B2B relationships. The combination of different theories is also highlighted and can further add to the explanation of B2B.

5.2 Future research directions – context

Prior studies tend to rely more on buyers than sellers, and a small group ( n = 29.14%) is devoted to the dyadic relationship ( Lussier et al. , 2017 ; Mir et al. , 2017 ; Narayandas and Rangan, 2004 ). Therefore, we recommend more studies designed to capture the B2B relationship instead of focusing on a single partner or both independently. Prior studies tend to focus mainly on multi-manufactory industries, leading us to recommend more effort to understand the service sector. North America and Europe are the regions where most studies were conducted. Hence, new opportunities are open to study firms in other regions, particularly developing countries.

5.3 Future research directions – characteristics

Many articles try to explore the drivers of B2B customer behavior ( Figure 4 ). We grouped them into tangibility, environmental, organizational culture and relational behavior. Tangibility represents the quality of goods, services and distribution offered by one partner to another ( Davis-Sramek et al. , 2009 ; Voss et al. , 2009 ). Switching costs, price and technical support are also analyzed, as long as the corporate reputation (both the firm and its brands) is considered ( Dax et al. , 2019 ; Hunter et al. , 2006 ; Russo et al. , 2017 ). Environmental category means the factors associated with not only the risk, uncertainty, pressure ( Corsaro, 2015 ), cultural differences ( Brush and Rexha, 2007 ) but also sustainability concerns ( Prior and Keränen, 2020 ). Organizational culture focuses on internal factors of the organization, such as norms, values, organizational characteristics ( Aitken and Paton, 2016 ; Kaski et al. , 2017 ), how top managers deal with other employees and the structure of the organization ( Valtakoski, 2015 ). The influence of rituals, norms, artifacts and the complete factors associated with organizational culture should be better analyzed for a more holistic understanding of how they influence inter- and intra-organizational relationships and behavior ( Itani et al. , 2020 ) and business purchase decisions, explore value congruency in the two partner organizations ( Anwer et al. , 2020 ) and multiple partner relationships (multi-dyadic relationships).

Relational behavior brings together the factors that influence B2B relationships. Thus, the concept of dyadic market-oriented relationships describes how the relationship evolves between partners ( Aitken and Paton, 2016 ; Kaski et al. , 2017 ) and how they create bonds and favorable emotional states to cooperate ( Wong et al. , 2010 ). Individual and social characteristics express the individual partner traits and the social skills to interact in dyadic relationships ( Lichtenthal and Shani, 2000 ; Meehan and Wright, 2012 ). Particularly, organizational customers’ perceptions of supplier employees’ empathy (cognitive and affective) are still not well studied ( Delpechitre et al. , 2019 ; Selnes and Gønhaug, 2000 ).

The quality of communication in B2B relationships has been widely recognized as a critical factor that can influence the longevity of the partnership. It encompasses both the intrinsic qualities of the individuals involved and the methods by which firms disseminate institutional information both internally and externally ( Doney et al. , 2007 ; Graça and Kharé, 2020 ; Sinčić Ćorić et al. , 2017 ). Relational switching costs can avoid the end of a B2B relationship, as they influence the partners’ share-of-wallet, cross-buying behavior and actual switching behavior ( Blut et al. , 2016 ). Incentives, such as monetary rewards or appreciation, can encourage partners to maintain their relationships ( Tanner, 1996 ). Additionally, the power dynamic between partners also conditions the relationship’s longevity ( Hunter et al. , 2006 ; Narayandas and Rangan, 2004 ).

A proliferation of outcomes is analyzed in previous research, which we aggregate as firm and relational. Firm outcomes are associated with maintaining the relationship by continuing to purchase, recommend to others or the willingness to pay price premium ( Brown et al. , 2012 ; Dong et al. , 2017 ), as well as the performance achieved by the firm or the salesperson ( Briggs and Grisaffe, 2009 ; Chaithanapat et al. , 2022 ; Ng, 2010 ). Brand sensitivity is an essential factor in inducing behavior in the partner and represents a primary emotion felt about a brand ( Brown et al. , 2012 ). Brand sensitivity is still in the early stage of their knowledge. More research must be devoted to creating a proper measurement tool and exploring drivers as individual factors (e.g. stakeholders and personal preferences) or information quality ( Sharma and Sengupta, 2020 ).

Brand equity gives a brand position in terms of value and can generate more revenue when its equity is higher ( Bonner and Calantone, 2005 ). From the relational perspective, we can point out the relationship quality (trust, commitment and satisfaction), which can also act as a mediator between the drivers and other outcomes shown in Figure 4 ( Homburg et al. , 2005 ), the power intensity ( Meehan and Wright, 2012 ) and the switching behavior ( Blut et al. , 2016 ; Wathne et al. , 2001 ). Other outcomes are suggested, like cost, quality and flexibility of production of the manufacturers and sales performance of the distributors ( Li et al. , 2017 ), to refine the specific marketing elements that lead suppliers to make decisions. Researchers should be concerned with design studies that can observe actual behaviors in interaction situations ( Kemp et al. , 2020 ) to complement the data collected through interviews and cross-sectional approaches.

The engagement process among all stakeholders can act as a mediator in understanding the decision process between drivers and outcomes of the B2B relationship ( Kim et al. , 2011 ; Loureiro et al. , 2020 ; Prior and Keränen, 2020 ), but this concept and process have not been appropriately studied until now. Although past research addresses the concepts of cooperation and interdependence, more research is welcome to show how these concepts occur and influence relationships and decision-making. The dark side of relationships has been somehow ignored. We highly recommend understanding how to handle and restore non-trust, non-commitment or non-satisfaction situations. When attraction shifts to avoidance, what to do? The concept of sustainability and its influence on B2B relationships and decision-making needs an in-depth study.

Concerning moderators, we categorize them as relationship strength and market. The former is devoted to the length, longevity, socialization, frequency of contact or relationship history ( Gould et al. , 2016 ). The latter deals with the type of market, the firm and product characteristics and the competitive intensity ( Bode et al. , 2011 ; Brown et al. , 2011 ). Some control variables somehow overlap with the moderators, for instance, the characteristics of the firm (firm size, age, type and power), relationship length and duration, market uncertainty or even the product characteristics (size, complexity and type) ( Li et al. , 2017 ; Lussier et al. , 2017 ). However, control variables also consider the country of origin ( Reardon et al. , 2017 ) or employee socio-demographics ( Kemp et al. , 2020 ). How product innovativeness strengthens or weakens the relationship between organizations and buyer purchase behavior is a moderator not yet explored ( Bonner and Calantone, 2005 ). Other moderators can be profit and non-profit organizations, public and private organizations or even levels of technology incorporated ( Lakshmi and Bahli, 2020 ; Nedjah et al. , 2022 ).

The evolution of technologies and their incorporation into organizations are changing the relationships, particularly with artificial intelligence (AI) agents ( Guaita Martínez et al. , 2022 ; Liu, 2020 ). Robots have been used in industry to develop repetitive tasks rapidly, and AI systems are used to treat a large amount of information (big data). In addition, they are also being incorporated into the context of the service, operating as a virtual assistant (using voice or text) and embedded in a human-like robot and interacting with other employees. Thus, new avenues are open to exploring the multiple interactions between humans and AI agents and between two AI agents. Saura et al. (2021) present diverse research questions to be considered in the future, organized by sender’s cues, training and recruiting, organizational strategy and structure, suitability of digital interaction and dark side of digital sales interactions.

5.4 Future research directions – methodology

Structural equation model, regression analysis and confirmatory factorial analysis are widely used in this area of research ( Crosno et al. , 2020 ; Dong et al. , 2017 ; Russo et al. , 2017 ). Although some studies also conducted interviews ( Friend and Johnson, 2017 ; Zondag and Brink, 2015 ), experiments ( Cardozo and Cagley, 1971 ; Mir et al. , 2017 ), conjoint analysis ( Chakraborty et al. , 2007 ; Wuyts et al. , 2009 ) or case studies ( Bolton and Myers, 2003 ; Krause and Ellram, 2014 ), the challenge is to go further and develop mixed-approach methods. We recommend the fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis to explore complex relationships and moderating effects.

Regarding samples, the size depends on the methodological tool used. Thus, case studies tend to be three on average per article. In structural equation model, the sample (using a cross-sectional approach) ranges between 100 and 600. Interviews have between 10 and 70 participants. Conjoint analysis and cluster analysis have between 100 and 200 participants. Experiments have between 50 and 100 participants. Therefore, previous studies lack longitudinal data collection, field experiments or multiple-case studies, which needs to be considered in future studies. One limitation of previous studies also pointed out as a possible research avenue is a need for collecting more data and the replication of models in other contexts to allow generalization ( Davis-Sramek et al. , 2009 ; Salo and Wendelin, 2013 ).

6. Conclusions

6.1 implications.

Research about B2B has adopted different perspectives about customer behavior in this domain, resulting in a rich body of literature trying to understand this phenomenon. Based on an overview of the 219 papers analyzed through a systematic literature review, this paper enhances the existing knowledge about B2B customer behavior, identifies and summarizes the main topics in this field of research, contributes to an explanatory framework, identifies future research avenues and offers a research agenda.

There is still no similar systematic review on the topic to the best of the author’s knowledge. Research has been conducted to map B2B advertising ( Swani et al. , 2020 ), B2B market segmentation ( Mora Cortez et al. , 2021 ) or B2B branding ( Leek and Christodoulides, 2011 ), but a systematic review of customer behavior in the B2B domain is still not available, which puts in evidence the timely and relevant contribution of this paper. This novelty can benefit scholars and practitioners, who can take advantage of our integrative viewpoint on this topic. This paper offers a systematic review and applies a text-mining procedure using R software to adequately capture the relevant topic discussed and open new research avenues, which is still uncommon, particularly in the marketing and B2B domains. Moreover, our initial descriptive analysis offers a helicopter view of the type and number of studies already conducted, the journals publishing in this field of research and the geographic coverage of the empirical studies. This information allowed future researchers to understand the prior studies’ characteristics and the potential journals that can be open to receiving more studies on the topic. Indeed, through the support of the TCCM framework, this literature highlights several gaps for future research, such as a firmer theoretical foundation and development, better contextual positioning or more exploratory methodologies. Our arguments may also assist practitioners in understanding the various direct and indirect connections between antecedents and outcomes of customer behavior in B2B settings, helping to formulate appropriate marketing strategies in a structured and systematic way, such as the insights gained from the analysis of buyer–supplier relationships, the role of supplier selection, cooperation and interactions or the effect of commitment and cultural differences.

6.2 Future research agenda overview

This paper proposes an integrated overview of customer behavior in B2B that can be useful for practitioners and academics in future endeavors. We offered the detailed implications for future research agenda in previous Section 5, which we summarized here in Table 4 .

6.3 Limitations

As with any systematic review, this paper’s findings should be taken with caution within the context of this method’s limitations. The review has resorted to the WOS and SCOPUS databases to assess the quality of publications. Although it comprises diverse publishers (e.g. Emerald, Sage, Elsevier, Wiley or Taylor & Francis), one may assume that interesting research may not be incorporated in the final pool of papers analyzed as conference proceedings papers or other non-top tier publications. Second, the keywords used may limit the process even if inspired by top reference articles. Additionally, the screening process may have other biases, such as the researchers’ data handling. However, the authors believe that the rigorous procedure of this systematic review has reduced the probability that the omitted research would have contained information that would critically alter our conclusions. The gaps and avenues for future research have been identified through the TCCM framework, and the authors prepared a summative table ( Table 4 ) compiling the suggestions of several prior studies that have not been achieved so far.

Systematic literature review selection criteria

Article frequency analysis by paper’s type of research and year of publication

Log-likelihood and perplexity metrics to evaluate K

Integrative framework

Main theories used by the papers included in the revision

Source: Adapted from MacPherson and Holt (2007)

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Acknowledgements

Funding : This research did not receive any specific grant from public, commercial or not-for-profit funding agencies.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Ricardo Godinho Bilro (PhD) is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at ISCTE – Instituto Universitário de Lisboa. His current research interests include digital transformation, social media marketing and consumer–brand relationships and engagement. His research has been published in international scientific journals such as Journal of Business Research , International Journal of Contemporary Hospita Management , Journal of Product and Brand Management or Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management .

Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro (PhD) is the Director of the PhD Management, specialization in Marketing and the PhD Tourism Management. Her current research interests include relationship marketing and tourism marketing issues related with VR, AR and AI. Her papers have been published in a variety of peer reviewed journals that include Journal of Marketing , Journal of Retailing , Tourism Management , Journal of Business Research , Journal of Travel Research and International Journal of Hospitality Management . She has more than 300 articles published in scientific journals and conference proceedings.

Pedro Souto is a PhD in Management candidate at ISCTE – IUL. His PhD is focused in marketing, with research activity on B2B behaviour, centered on the study of holistic models of the relationship between suppliers and buyers. He holds a BSc in Management by ISCTE – IUL, complemented by several executive programs in strategy and marketing. He has a vast professional experience, primarily in management consulting, formerly with PWC and Roland Berger and currently as an independent consultant. Additionally, Souto is a member of the supervisory board of three financial institutions.

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100 best marketing research topics for all.

Because of the many aspects of marketing, choosing marketing topics to write about may put one in a dicey situation. This article provides some hot topics in marketing that will help you select an area of focus and select relevant topics from that niche. From marketing research topics for college students to social issues in marketing, we have got you covered! So sit down and relax as we take you through the list of marketing research topics our professional writers prepared just for you!

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• Analysis and determination of consumer buying behavior for Coca-Cola
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• Exploring how organizations use corporate social responsibility (CSR) to reinforce brand equity
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Digital marketing remains a very important aspect of marketing in the world today. Here are some very juicy digital marketing topics you can write a great blog on!

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Marketing Blog Topics

• Facebook advertising: pros and cons
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• How to generate subscribers for your blog faster than ever!
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• Five video content marketing myths you must discard
• 30 social media campaign ideas from big brands

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• Does google give preferential treatment to big brands?
• Does social media affect SEO ranking?
• Are grey SEO techniques safe?
• Are YouTube videos more engaging than TV ads?
• Are building e-mail lists still one of the best ways to sell?
• Will immersion marketing through VR technology to be accepted?

Sport Marketing Research Topics

Sports marketing continues to remain a significant source of revenue. Hence, research in this area will continue to stay relevant. Here are some sport marketing topics you could consider working on.

• How the extraordinary content offered by intelligent chatbots can help sports teams strengthen fan loyalty
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• How to effectively capitalize on the wearables market
• Should more women and children get into sports?
• Should seniors be allowed to participate in some games?

Marketing Presentation Topics

• Mastering in-house SEO
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International Marketing Topics

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• The effect of globalization on consumer behavior
• How do international brands compare to local brands?
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• Creating brand awareness by utilizing global event marketing
• How to market products on an international level

Marketing Plan Topics

• The importance of a marketing plan to the success of a business or product launch
• Building a tactical marketing plan
• How is a marketing strategy different from a marketing plan?
• Indispensable parts in writing a marketing plan

Ethical Issues In Marketing

• Targeted Ads based on browser history
• Immersion marketing through virtual reality
• The exploitation of impulsive buying
• Click baiting into sponsored posts

Affiliate Marketing Topics

• How to find profitable niches in affiliate marketing
• How to get readers interested in what you market
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What Hundreds of Economic News Events Say About Belief Overreaction in the Stock Market

We measure the nature and severity of a variety of belief distortions in market reactions to hundreds of economic news events using a new methodology that synthesizes estimation of a structural asset pricing model with algorithmic machine learning to quantify bias. We estimate that investors systematically overreact to perceptions about multiple fundamental shocks in a macro-dynamic system, generating asymmetric compositional effects when several counteracting shocks occur simultaneously in real-world events. We show that belief overreaction to all shocks can lead the market to over- or underreact to events, amplifying or dampening volatility.

Bianchi and Ludvigson received financial support from the National Science Foundation under Grant 2116641. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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