is space exploration justified essay

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The Planetary Society • Aug 30, 2021

Why space exploration is always worthwhile

Your guide to advocating for space in a complicated world.

Most people who love space and believe in exploration have probably heard this once or twice: “We shouldn’t waste money on space exploration when there are problems to deal with here on Earth.”

While public health concerns, social injustices, climate change, and other urgent issues are important to address, solving these problems doesn’t depend on defunding space programs.

This can be a difficult conversation to navigate, so we’ve outlined a few ideas here that you can share when advocating for space.

Space research isn’t as expensive as people think

Many countries around the world invest in space science and exploration as a balanced part of their total federal budget. Public opinion research has shown that people estimate NASA to take up as much as a quarter of the U.S. federal budget, but in fact,  NASA’s budget only represents about 0.5% of the total federal budget and the proportion is even smaller for other spacefaring nations . The correct information may go a long way to reassuring critics that space spending isn’t eating up as many public resources as they think.

The United States government spent approximately $6.6 trillion in fiscal year 2020, of which just 0.3% ($22.6 billion) was provided to NASA. In this chart, shades of blue represent mandatory spending programs; shades of orange are discretionary programs that require annual appropriations by Congress. "Defense and related" includes both the Department of Defense and Veterans Affairs. Source: Office of Management and Budget Historical Tables 8.5 and 8.7.

Space spending pays off

If someone is arguing that public funds should be spent on solving the world’s problems, they should know that money spent on NASA positively impacts the U.S. economy . We get the same kind of payoff for space spending in other countries. Spending on space supports highly skilled jobs, fuels technology advancements with practical applications, and creates business opportunities that feed back into the economy. This in turn grows the pool of public money that can be spent on solving the world’s most pressing problems.

Space research directly impacts Earthly problems

When people apply themselves to the challenges of exploring space, they make discoveries that can help the world in other ways too. Studying how we might grow food in orbit or on Mars yields insights into growing food in extreme conditions on Earth , generating knowledge that can help mitigate the impacts of climate change. Medical research conducted on the International Space Station helps us understand the human body in new ways, helping save lives and improve quality of life .

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Studying space helps us understand our own world

Studying the cosmos gives us an important perspective shift. When we learn about what lies beyond Earth, it gives us context for understanding our own planet. Studying the other worlds of our solar system and beyond makes it clear that Earth is a precious oasis for life. When we sent spacecraft to Venus we saw how a runaway greenhouse effect turned the world from a habitable planet to an absolute hellscape. When astronauts travel into space they see just how thin and tenuous Earth’s atmosphere is, appreciating the fragile balance in which we live . A cosmic perspective underscores the importance of protecting our planet’s habitability and encourages investment in that effort.

Studying space may one day save us all

All the social and environmental progress in the world won't help us if an asteroid impacts the Earth. We have to explore space to find and study the asteroids and comets in our cosmic neighborhood if we want to make sure we can  defend our planet  if an object ever heads our way.

Space is inspiring

Not every child who dreams of becoming an astronaut will get that opportunity. This is a sad truth that many of us know from experience. But to be inspired to aim for something so grand gives kids the motivation to study hard and gain skills in science, engineering, medicine, or other fields that benefit humanity and directly help overcome problems that we face as a species.

And inspiration isn’t just for kids. When we marvel at the beauty of Jupiter’s clouds or the mystery of Enceladus’ oceans , we get an opportunity to appreciate the wonder and majesty of this cosmos that we inhabit. The idea that life might exist elsewhere in the universe reminds us that we might not be the only planet struggling to achieve balance, justice, and sustainability. And even in the bleakest of times, there’s something beautiful about still striving to achieve something great and discover something that could change how we see ourselves and our cosmos forever.

There’s plenty of room at the table

There’s no denying that there are many important issues facing humanity that need fixing. But to deal with those problems doesn’t mean we have to stop looking up, stop exploring, and stop making discoveries.

Human civilization has astonishing capacity, and we can do more than one important thing at a time. If someone thinks that a particular issue should get more attention and investment, they can and should advocate for that. The problems we face don’t persist because we’re spending money on space science and exploration. And there’s no reason to pit our aspirations against one another.

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Space exploration pros and cons: Are space programs a waste of money?

Source: Image : ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA  

Space exploration is a hugely expensive affair. Should we spend money on space exploration when we have so many problems on planet Earth? We debate the pros and cons of space exploration and the reasons for investing in space agencies and programs. 

Should we spend money on space exploration?

The launch of SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket into has brought back media attention to space exploration . Elton Musk's private aerospace company is in the process of becoming a major player and a partner for many space programs. However, most of the efforts to discover whats out still depend mostly on public funding. 

Space exploration is costly, and many argue that in times of belt-tightening, we should focus on solving problems here on Earth, especially since the knowledge gained from space exploration has few immediate benefits. On the other hand, pronponents of space exploration argue that the knowledge to be gained is invaluable, and that it is in the very nature of humankind to explore. In addition, proponents of these programs argue that they have had significant benefits and resulted in the discovery or popularisation of many useful new technologies . Furthermore, space exploration could be the only way to escape  human extinction in case living conditions become unsustainable on Earth.

Today there are six big government space agencies with the capacity to create, launch and recover satellites: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ), Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roscosmos or RFSA),the China National Space Administration ( CNSA ), the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ),  the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and the European Space Agency ( ESA ) which integrates several European space agencies. Among them only NASA, ROSCOSMOS and CNSA have full capacity for human spaceflights and lunar soft-landing.  In addtition to these there are many other government space agencies with variable capabilities, most of them have only the capacity to operate satellites, a few of them also have launch capabilities and can operate extraterrestrial probes. Some of these space agencies are competing to be the first to send humans to Mars  and investigating if there is intelligent life on other planets .

These space programs and agencies are very costly. It is estimated that the total annual budget of space agencies is $41.8 billion. Among them the highest budgets correspond to:

• NASA (USA, $19.3 billion)
• Roscosmos (Russia, $5.6 billion) 
• ESA (Europe, $5.5 billion)
• CNES (France, $2.5 billion)
• JAXA (Japan, $2.5 billion)
• DLR (Germany, $2 billion)
• ASI (Italy, $1.8 billion)
• CNSA (China, $1.8 billion)
• ISRO (India, $1.2 billion)

Are all these costs justfified? Are there better ways to spend public funding? Should we mainly rely on private investors such as Elton Musk to promote space expliration? Will capitalistic incentives lead the way towards space exploration? In order to help make up your mind we outline next the most important benefits and problems of space exploration.

Space exploration pros and cons

• Knowledge generation.  Thanks to space exploration programs we are discovering many things that help us understand the universe. For instance, learning about planets, comets, stars, etc. can help us find solutions for some of the problems our civilization will face, such as overopulation  and the need to colonize other planets.
• Exploration and discovery are beneficial. Humans have always engaged in exploration to satisfy their sense of curiosity and look for opportunities. During the Age of Discoveries in the 15th and 16th centuries, countries such as Spain and Portugal heavily invested in expeditions, but thanks to them they became super-powers and gained many riches. Later, during the second age of explorations in the 18th and 19th century, the discoveries of pioneers such as Captain Cook or Livingstone heavily contributed to scientific discovery.
• Artificial satellites are crucial tools in modern society. For instance they are used for defence purposes and to fight against terrorism. Satellites help us also monitor the effects of global warming  and detect wildfires. Space agencies are necessary to operate satellites.
• Scientific advancement and by-products. Space exploration programs help introduce and test new technologies. Much of the research carried out to find solutions for space travel have applications elsewhere. For instance NASA research has contributed to develop velcro, fire-resistant materials, medical devices to relieve muscle and joint pain, new precise thermometers, artificial limbs, new air conditioning systems, land mine removal systems, improved radial tires, etc. 
• Space race may save humanity. Life on Earth may be threatened by climate change, pollution, depletion of resources, infectious diseases or nuclear war. Further, space exploration is necessary to find another planet on which humans could pursue their lives. Space programs help also find solutions to adapt human lives to the space or other planets.
• Space industry jobs. The space industry employs directly about 120,000 people in the OECD countries and 250,000 in Russia.
• Few direct benefits to space exploration . True, space technology has helped us launch satellites and introduce many useful products, but do we need to keep pushing forward? The direct intellectual gains from learning about far away planets or satellites such as the moon can hardly compensate the costs. Historical exploration on Earth allowed collect and trade resources. Bringing resources to Earth is not possible with the current technology.
• Space travel is hazardous.  Many lives have been lost in space expeditions. Space missions are very dangerous and can often cost lives and stress to the families of the astronauts or cosmonauts. Should highly qualified professionals and scientists risk their lives traveling outside Earth? 
• Failure is common. Many of the space exploration fail. Probes and satellites crash, exploration robots are lost, rockets blow up in the air, etc. It is frustrating to see how so much money and time are wasted in unsuccessful missions.
• Danger of establishing contact with alien life. One of the main goals of space exploration is to find out if there is life outside Earth. However, establishing contact with other civilizations can be extremely dangerous and could jeopardize human life. If we flag our existence to technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations, we may be somehow exposing ourselves to their attacks and invasion. The wanna-be colonizers could be colonized. Primitive life-forms such as virus and bacteria could also provoke epidemic diseases.
• New source of international tensions. The space race is not over. There is a growing international competition to be the first in fulfilling some challenges in space exploration. Sovereignty over other planets and satellites, and over their resources, will become a controversial issue. With the advancement of technology domination of the outer space may tip the balance of power on a bipolar or multipolar Earth.
• Priorities and opportunity costs.  Even if there are benefits to space exploration, spending so much money and effort in reaching other planets is highly questionable. That money and brain power could be used to solve other more important problems for us. For instance governments could invest much more to prevent global warming, reduce crime rates and find a cure for cancer or Alzheimer's Disease.

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Space Exploration — Is Space Exploration Worth It

Is Space Exploration Worth It

• Categories: Space Exploration

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Published: Mar 20, 2024

Words: 566 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

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Scientific advancements, economic benefits, inspiration and education.

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If Humanity Is to Succeed in Space, Our Ethics Must Evolve

Space ethics is a new field of inquiry, but one growing in importance as exploration accelerates and private interests become more involved..

On July 16, 1969, the day the Apollo 11 mission launched the four-day flight that would land three American astronauts on the moon, one million people made their way to Cape Canaveral, Florida, to watch liftoff. Among them was aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun, a director at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), whose leadership and Saturn V rocket were central to the Apollo program’s success. The moment marked the pinnacle of von Braun’s career and the realization of his childhood dream of sending a manned rocket to the moon. A few days after the moon landing, von Braun was lifted onto shoulders in his hometown of Huntsville, Alabama, and paraded around as a “ conquering hero .”

Twenty-five years earlier, von Braun was a rocket engineer for the German army and a member of both the Nazi party and the SS. His infamous V-2 rocket, produced with slave labour from concentration camps, had killed thousands throughout Europe during the Second World War. Numerous historians and journalists have argued that von Braun was more opportunist than villain — motivated less by Nazi ideology or a desire for Germans to win the war than by his dream to launch rockets into space. Toward the end of the war, von Braun surrendered to American forces and was brought to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip — the top-secret program that brought dozens of Nazi scientists to work in America’s science and technology industries.

It is no great mystery why American officials went to extraordinary lengths to obscure von Braun’s past from the American public in the 1950s and 1960s, albeit with varying success. His engineering and management talent were unparalleled and would help the United States compete with the Soviets. Yet, the decision to employ von Braun and hide his past set a dangerous precedent: It signalled that deliberation about space exploration could be framed in strategic rather than ethical terms, conducted in opaque ways, and reserved for only a handful of officials already committed to the core aims of the program.

This approach to the ethics of space exploration is no longer sufficient, if it ever was. As exploration accelerates and private commercial activities are added to ongoing scientific and security initiatives, we need an accompanying acceleration and expansion of space ethics. We need to think clearly about what activities should be permitted and prohibited, as well as how, where and by whom such decisions should be made. We need to think about the ethics of space exploration, and the political economy of space ethics.

Key Issues in Space Ethics

Space exploration is motivated by scientific curiosity and discovery, interests in weather and climate observation, improved communication, tourism, resource extraction, and geopolitical and strategic considerations, among others. At the same time, spacefaring involves risks — including risks to astronauts; physical and economic threats posed by space debris; and the potential to contaminate the ecosystems we visit (forward-contamination) or our own planet following space missions (backward-contamination). We also confront trade-offs — such as spending scarce public dollars on space rather than on improving the health and well-being of people on Earth. Space ethics prompts us to ask whether certain motives are defensible, what risks and trade-offs they entail, which activities should be permitted, and what limits should be placed on space activities in light of important values and principles.

The proliferation of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, for example, raises ethical questions. LEO satellites can improve communications and internet access, especially in remote areas, and enhance weather- and climate-tracking capabilities. At the same time, LEO satellites are rapidly cluttering the skies, making professional and amateur stargazing more challenging and intensifying the economic and safety risks associated with space debris. How should LEO space be regulated, recognizing different actors, interests and concerns for fairness?

Ideally, ethical reflection should be insulated from ideology, interests and bias. But space ethics is an earthbound, human endeavour, with all the good and bad that entails.

Similarly, there are questions about how we should sequence scientific, strategic and commercial interests when there is the potential for conflict among them. If commercial activities, such as mining, risk contaminating other worlds, perhaps we should prioritize scientific over strategic and commercial missions — or prohibit mining altogether. But if strategic and commercial missions provide the motivation and funding without which scientific missions would not occur, then perhaps a different balance is warranted.

Where these and other issues are addressed is just as important as how they are resolved. Ideally, ethical reflection should be insulated from ideology, interests and bias. But space ethics is an earthbound, human endeavour, with all the good and bad that entails. For much of the history of space exploration, ethical deliberation and decision making have been restricted to a handful of institutions and people. How have they fared?

A Community of Scholars: Space Ethics in Theory

As a field of inquiry, space ethics is relatively new. Following the 1957 launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik, and the widespread publication of pictures of Earth as seen from space throughout the 1960s, a handful of philosophers and scientists began to ask what it means for humanity to “ escape from…imprisonment to the earth .” An early intervention was Hannah Arendt’s 1963 essay , “The Conquest of Space and the Stature of Man,” in which she asked how our being in, and seeing ourselves from, space would affect our sense of our place in the universe and our earthly conceptions of value and obligation. This was space ethics more as geocentric reflection on how space exploration would change humanity’s self-conceptions, and less about whether we should go and what we should and should not do in space.

Leading space ethicists James S. J. Schwartz and Tony Milligan note that a more outward-looking space ethics largely emerged only in the 1980s when, as scientists were considering the feasibility of terraforming Mars, many began to ask whether that was “the kind of thing we ought to do.” Those involved published their thoughts in a 1986 volume, Beyond Spaceship Earth: Environmental Ethics and the Solar System . Since then, the academic space ethics community has flourished, although Schwartz and Milligan note that only in the past 10 or 20 years have professional ethicists — rather than interested scientists and space practitioners — taken the lead. The field now boasts hundreds of articles and books on space ethics issues, some university-level courses dedicated to space ethics, and a well-connected community of scholars. Our understanding of the ethical implications of space exploration is enriched by their efforts.

Yet, space ethicists’ influence on decision making has been limited. Although some contribute to discussions and working papers at NASA, the European Space Agency and other space agencies, and occasionally write for policy-oriented publications or conventional media, their insights and knowledge far outpace their opportunities for impact. Institutional realities limit what can be achieved.

The Operational Frontier: Space Ethics in Practice

Engineers, flight directors and managers at the operational frontier of space exploration are better placed than academics to apply ethical considerations to decision making and behaviour, but less equipped and motivated to do so. The operational frontier is concerned with mission success — whatever mission they have been given — but not so concerned about whether a mission ought to proceed at all. Indeed, the ethical considerations that have been embraced at the operational frontier have tended to emerge through reaction to catastrophic events rather than through proactive reflection.

Only after a fire in the cabin of the Apollo 1 command module , and the deaths of astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee in 1967, did NASA’s Mission Control Center begin to take space exploration’s risks to human life more seriously. In a speech following the tragedy, flight director Gene Kranz committed Mission Control to a new “ tough and competent ” ethos where “ tough means we are forever accountable for what we do or fail to do” and “c ompetent means we will never take anything for granted.” Less than 20 years later, it took the Challenger space shuttle disaster , which killed all seven crew members — including schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe, the first civilian astronaut — for NASA to recommit to risk-based decision making that prioritizes human life over “impossible schedules” and cost savings and to establish the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance . As the American physicist Richard P. Feynman noted in his report following the disaster, “for a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled.”

The operational frontier is concerned with mission success — whatever mission they have been given — but not so concerned about whether a mission ought to proceed at all.

While most NASA officials are decent people who would never intentionally behave unethically, all organizations — including NASA — tend to have structural logics that establish implicit boundaries around questions that can and cannot be raised, and incentive structures that impair ethical deliberation when it does occur. NASA does not really question whether space exploration is worth pursuing, and it faces cost, timeline and political considerations that can cloud proper ethical reflection. As more private sector firms launch space activities, the risk of cost constraints and profit incentives impairing ethical judgment is likely to increase.

The Politics of Space Ethics

Academic space ethicists have the independence and insight to ask the big questions, but they lack institutional influence. Practitioners at the operational frontier have the necessary proximity and resources to act, but face institutional constraints on the kinds of ethical questions and concerns that can be addressed. Does democratic politics offer a better path? Elected decision makers are well positioned to set, and consider the ethical implications of, broad goals and plans for space exploration. Their track records on space ethics, however, have been underwhelming.

When President John F. Kennedy announced in 1961 that America would put astronauts on the moon by the end of the decade, he said that “we choose to go the moon,” implying that the American people had collectively decided to do so. Yet, no such collective decision was made. In fact, polls at the time showed that only a little more than one-third of Americans supported a moon mission, while more than half were opposed. Moreover, although Kennedy appealed to ideals of “knowledge and progress” and inspired the audience with visions of a “great adventure” and “exploration” in his speech, in reality, the moon shot was motivated by concerns about the security implications of recent Soviet successes in space. The decision to go to the moon may have been ethically permissible, perhaps even imperative, but the actual decision was neither collective nor informed by careful ethical deliberation.

That broader ethical deliberation had been discounted in decision making about the moon shot was made strikingly clear in Gil Scott-Heron’s 1970 poem “ Whitey on the Moon .” Scott-Heron offered a biting critique of the Apollo program’s enormous costs while Black Americans faced racial, political and economic injustice.

What else could we be doing with the resources dedicated to space exploration, Scott-Heron prompted us to ask. Are promises of progress and trickle-down benefits accurate and substantial enough to justify massive public spending on space-related activities? Given the current state of democratic politics — a system in which monied interests get hearings with decision makers that ordinary citizens do not, and where regulators are often “ captured ” by private interests, due to knowledge asymmetries — the rise of privately funded space activity could further undermine the state as a mechanism to consider the ethical implications of space exploration.

Multilateral institutions offer hope, especially the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). UNOOSA regularly convenes space experts and decision makers to discuss issues of mutual concern, such as how to coordinate LEO satellites to avoid collisions, how to regulate space mining, and how to facilitate international cooperation on shared assets such as the International Space Station. UNOOSA’s greatest achievement is the 1966 Outer Space Treaty — an agreement signed by all major spacefaring nations that sets out principles for a peaceful and well-coordinated exploration and use of space, accessible to all, and with explicit prohibition on certain military activities.

Yet, like all multilateral institutions, while UNOOSA has been able to articulate and facilitate international agreement on noteworthy ethical principles, its enforcement capacity is limited. That some countries continue to use space for military purposes reveals the challenge.

A More Democratic Space Ethics

Is there a way to conduct ethical deliberation about space activities with the independence it requires while ensuring that its conclusions and insights have practical force? An ideal institution free from the pathologies that confront existing institutions likely does not exist. But there are ways to improve how we do space ethics and enhance their relevance at both the goal-setting and operational frontiers.

At a minimum, we should ensure that academic space ethics is well funded and that its experts are regularly invited to contribute their insights to political and operational decision making through briefings, panels, conferences and committees. Moreover, we should strive for more public discussion and engagement on the ethical implications of emerging space issues and activities. This could include more frequent and informed discussion in the media, occasional citizens’ juries and deliberative panels, and even the creation of a non-profit institution (perhaps modelled on the Danish Board of Technology ) to facilitate regular research, foresight and public engagement on space-related ethical issues. Expanding the activities of the Outer Space Institute — a Canadian-based space policy think tank — to include more comprehensive and systematic discussion of ethical issues prompted by space exploration, is another option. And, despite its limitations, further support and engagement with UNOOSA is also critical, given its potential as a forum to discuss and coordinate international and interplanetary activities.

As we muddle through ideas and institutional possibilities, our minimum aim should be to avoid the kind of thinking — or lack of thinking — that characterized von Braun’s participation in the American space program. Again, von Braun was likely more opportunist than villain, and space program officials are surely decent people who intend no harm. But as the philosopher Hannah Fenichel Pitkin has argued , many of our moral failings are a result not of malevolent intent, but of simply not thinking about what we are doing. If space exploration is to be conducted in ways consistent with core values and interests, we need to engage in more ethical thinking and create better spaces for space ethics.

The opinions expressed in this article/multimedia are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of CIGI or its Board of Directors.

About the Author

Daniel Munro is a Senior Fellow in the Innovation Policy Lab at the Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy at the University of Toronto, and Co-Director of Shift Insights .

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The Costs of Human Spaceflight Are High. History Shows the Benefits Are Too

A lmost from the time the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) opened its doors for business 60 years ago on Oct. 1, 1958, it has had to be ready to provide an answer to one question: “Why send people into space, given the costs and risks associated with human spaceflight?”

In its six decades, NASA launched just over 400 different people, many for more than one mission. Of that number, only 24 journeyed beyond Earth orbit to the Moon and back; three made that trip twice. The rest stayed close to their home planet. Although privately-funded space flights, both suborbital and into orbit and beyond, are planned for coming years, to date only NASA and its counterpart government agencies in Russia and China have developed the capabilities to carry out crewed missions.

The experience of 60 years should be sufficient to demonstrate the payoffs from spending public funds to send humans into space.

Or maybe not. Certainly there is lingering debate on the benefits of human spaceflight. For example, a perceptive 2014 assessment carried out by the prestigious National Academies of Science and Engineering observed “no defensible calculation of tangible, quantifiable benefits — spinoff technologies, attraction of talent to scientific careers, scientific knowledge, and so on — is likely ever to demonstrate a positive return on the massive investment required by human spaceflight.” The authors of this study suggested that only “intangible benefits” could justify a “major new and enduring public investment in human spaceflight,” and observed that “Americans have continued to fly into space not so much because the public strongly wants it to be so but because the counterfactual — space exploration dominated by the vehicles and astronauts of other nations — seems unthinkable.”

There are counterarguments to this judgment, of course, suggesting that the presence of humans as operators and investigators adds significant value to space activities. But overall I agree that the primary justification for human spaceflight has been, and continues to be, its intangible impacts. And, though the last few decades haven’t allowed as many of them as was once the case, those impacts are no less real.

This has been long recognized at top decision-making levels. Even before NASA was created, a June 1958 statement of space policy prepared by President Eisenhower’s National Security Council declared that “to the layman, manned exploration will represent the true conquest of outer space. No unmanned experiment can substitute for manned exploration in its psychological effect on the peoples of the world.” In recommending in May 1961 to President John F. Kennedy that he set a lunar landing as a national goal, his top space officials suggested that “it is man, not merely machines, in space that captures the imagination of the world.”

Certainly the iconic “Earthrise” image captured by Apollo 8’s Bill Anders has reshaped the perception of humanity’s home planet as a fragile oasis in the blackness of space. As the poet Archibald McLeish noted at the time, the image gave us the ability “to see earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in the eternal silence where it floats” and “to see ourselves as riders on the earth together.”

The context for the U.S. spaceflight program has certainly changed dramatically since the days of the Cold War competition that powered Project Apollo. No longer are astronauts instant celebrities with the “right stuff.” Most Americans probably could not name an active space flyer. Even so, having been in space remains an experience that “captures the imagination.” When a past or current astronaut meets the public wearing her or his blue flight suit, there appears a “golden glow” that makes that person an object of fascination and a degree of envy. Many of us want to go into space ourselves. Over 18,000 people applied to be one of the 12 new NASA astronaut candidates announced in June 2017.

Most in that group surely aspire to set foot on the lunar surface in the coming decade or be among the first humans to reach Mars in the 2030s, once again turning astronauts into explorers instead of just highly-trained workers carrying out various tasks as they orbit a few hundred miles above their home planet. If that happens, then the calculus of the value of humans in space would be much different than has been the case since the last Apollo astronaut left the Moon in December 1972. With colleagues at MIT, I participated a decade ago in drafting a paper on “The Future of Human Spaceflight.” I believe that the conclusion of that paper remains valid.

We concluded that the primary justification for sending humans into space was “exploration.” We defined that word as “an expansion of the realm of human experience, bringing people into new places, situations, and environments, expanding and redefining what it means to be human.” We suggested that “human presence, and its attendant risk, turns a spaceflight into a story that is compelling to large numbers of people. Exploration also has a moral dimension because it is in effect a cultural conversation on the nature and meaning of human life.”

Most of what the United States has been doing in space since the last Apollo mission in December 1972 is not, by this definition, exploration. Repetitive shuttle flights and sequential stays aboard the International Space Station certainly have value, but, as the National Academies study suggested, perhaps not enough fully to justify their costs. But since President George W. Bush in 2004 announced “a new plan to explore space and extend a human presence across our solar system,” the United States, however fitfully, has been preparing to resume human exploration of the Moon and beyond. In December 2017 President Trump signed a directive calling on NASA to “lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the solar system.”

Carrying out that directive will, in my view, lead to a program of space exploration that justifies its costs and risks. Next summer will mark the 50th anniversary of humanity’s first steps on another celestial body. It is well past time to take the next steps.

John M. Logsdon is Professor Emeritus at George Washington University’s Space Policy Institute. He is editor of The Penguin Book of Outer Space Exploration , available now. The quoted material in this essay comes from that book.

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Why go to space.

The reasons to explore the universe are as vast and varied as the reasons to explore the forests, the mountains, or the sea. Since the dawn of humanity, people have explored to learn about the world around them, find new resources, and improve their existence.

Why We Go to Space

At NASA, we explore the secrets of the universe for the benefit of all, creating new opportunities and inspiring the world through discovery.

NASA’s exploration vision is anchored in providing value for humanity by answering some of the most fundamental questions: Why are we here? How did it all begin? Are we all alone? What comes next? And, as an addendum to that: How can we make our lives better?

NASA was created more than half a century ago to begin answering some of these questions. Since then, space exploration has been one of the most unifying, borderless human endeavors to date. An international partnership of five space agencies from 15 countries operates the International Space Station, and two dozen countries have signed the Artemis Accords, signaling their commitment to shared values for long-term human exploration and research at the Moon. Through space exploration, we gain a new perspective to study Earth and the solar system. We advance new technologies that improve our daily lives, and we inspire a new generation of artists, thinkers, tinkerers, engineers, and scientists.  

Benefits to Humanity

Space exploration unites the world to inspire the next generation, make ground-breaking discoveries, and create new opportunities.

Technologies and missions we develop for human spaceflight have thousands of applications on Earth, boosting the economy, creating new career paths, and advancing everyday technologies all around us.

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Benefits to Science

The pursuit of discovery drives NASA to develop missions that teach us about Earth, the solar system, and the universe around us.

Science at NASA answers questions as practical as hurricane formation, as enticing as the prospect of lunar resources, as surprising as behavior in weightlessness, and as profound as the origin of the Universe.

Unite with us on our journey to explore.

Discover More Topics From NASA

Article written by 2008 DPDF Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Fellow Seth D. Baum, featured in Space Policy , Volume 25, No. 2:

Humanity faces many important decisions about space exploration. A major but controversial decision-making paradigm is cost–benefit analysis (CBA). This paper discusses some ethical considerations in CBA that are important to decision making about space exploration, including how we define costs and benefits; space exploration’s non-market value; the standing of future humans and of extraterrestrials; and the role of discounting in evaluating long-term space exploration projects.

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Essay on Space Exploration

• Updated on  
• Jun 11, 2022

For scientists, space is first and foremost a magnificent “playground” — an inexhaustible source of knowledge and learning that is assisting in the solution of some of the most fundamental existential issues concerning Earth’s origins and our place in the Universe. Curiosity has contributed significantly to the evolution of the human species. Curiosity along with the desire for a brighter future has driven humans to explore and develop from the discovery of fire by ancient ancestors to present space explorations.  Here is all the information you need and the best tips to write an essay on space exploration.

What is Space Exploration?  

Space Exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While astronomers use telescopes to explore space, both uncrewed robotic space missions and human spaceflight are used to explore it physically. One of the primary sources for space science is space exploration, which is similar to astronomy in its classical form. We can use space exploration to validate or disprove scientific theories that have been created on Earth. Insights into gravity, the magnetosphere, the atmosphere, fluid dynamics, and the geological evolution of other planets have all come from studying the solar system.

Advantages of Space Exploration 

It is vital to understand and point out the advantages of space exploration while writing an essay on the topic.

New inventions have helped the worldwide society. NASA’s additional research was beneficial to society in a variety of ways. Transportation, medical, computer management, agriculture technology, and consumer products all profit from the discoveries. GPS technology, breast cancer treatment, lightweight breathing systems, Teflon fibreglass, and other areas benefited from the space programme.

It is impossible to dispute that space exploration creates a large number of employment opportunities around the world. A better way to approach space exploration is to spend less and make it more cost-effective. In the current job market, space research initiatives provide far too much to science, technology, and communication. As a result, a large number of jobs are created.

Understanding

NASA’s time-travelling space exploration programmes and satellite missions aid in the discovery of previously unknown facts about our universe. Scientists have gained a greater understanding of Earth’s nature and atmosphere, as well as those of other space entities. These are the research initiatives that alert us to impending natural disasters and other related forecasts. It also paves the way for our all-powerful universe to be saved from time to time.

Disadvantages of Space Exploration

Highlighting disadvantages will give another depth to your essay on space exploration. Here are some important points to keep in mind.

Pollution is one of the most concerning issues in space travel. Many satellites are launched into space each year, but not all of them return. The remnants of such incidents degrade over time, becoming debris that floats in the air. Old satellites, various types of equipment, launch pads, and rocket fragments all contribute to pollution. Space debris pollutes the atmosphere in a variety of ways. Not only is space exploration harmful to the environment, but it is also harmful to space.

A government space exploration programme is expensive. Many people believe that space mission initiatives are economical. It should be mentioned that NASA just celebrated its 30th anniversary with $196.5 billion spent.

Space exploration isn’t a walk in the park. Many historical occurrences demonstrate the dangers that come with sad situations. The Challenger space shuttle accident on January 28, 1986, must be remembered. The spacecraft exploded in under 73 seconds, resulting in a tremendous loss of life and property.

Conclusion 

There are two sides to every coin. To survive on Earth, one must confront and overcome obstacles. Space exploration is an essential activity that cannot be overlooked, but it can be enhanced by technological advancements.

Space Exploration Courses

Well, if your dream is to explore space and you want to make a career in it, then maybe space exploration courses are the right choice for you to turn your dreams into reality.

Various universities offering space exploration courses are :

• Arizona State University, USA
• Bachelor of Science in Earth and Space Exploration
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrobiology and Biogeosciences)
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrophysics)
• University of Leicester, UK
• Space Exploration Systems MSc
• York University
• Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) in Space Engineering

Tips to write an IELTS Essay  on Space Exploration

• The essay’s word count should be at least 250 words. There is no maximum word count. If you write less than 250 words, you risk submitting an incomplete essay. The goal should be to write a minimum of 250-words essay.
• There will be more than one question on the essay topic. The questions must be answered in their entirety. For example, for the topic ‘crime is unavoidable,’ you might see questions like 1. Speak in favour of and against this topic, 2. Give your opinion, and 3. Suggest some measures to avoid crime. This topic now has three parts, and all of them must be answered; only then will the essay be complete.
• Maintain a smooth writing flow. You can’t get off track and create an essay that has nothing to do with the issue. The essay must be completely consistent with the question. The essay’s thoughts should be tied to the question directly. Make use of instances, experiences, and concepts that you can relate to.
• Use a restricted number of linking phrases and words to organise your writing. Adverbial phrases should be used instead of standard linking words.
• The essay should be broken up into little paragraphs of at least two sentences each. Your essay should be divided into three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion. ( cheapest pharmacy to fill prescriptions without insurance )
• Don’t overuse complicated and long words in your essay. Make appropriate use of collocations and idioms. You must be able to use words and circumstances effectively.
• The essay must be written correctly in terms of grammar. In terms of spelling, grammar, and tenses, there should be no mistakes. Avoid using long, difficult sentences to avoid grammatical problems. Make your sentences succinct and to-the-point.
• Agree/disagree, discuss two points of view, pros and disadvantages, causes and solutions, causes and effects, and problem-solution are all examples of essay questions to practise.
• Make a strong beginning. The opening should provide the reader a good indication of what to expect from the rest of the article. Making a good first impression and piquing your attention starts with a good introduction.
• If required, cite facts, figures, and data. It’s best to stay away from factual material if you’re not sure about the statistics or stats. If you’re unsure about something, don’t write it down.
• The essay’s body should be descriptive, with all of the points, facts, and information listed in great detail.
• The conclusion is the most noticeable part. Your IELTS band is influenced by how you end your essay.
• Make sure there are no spelling errors. If you’re not sure how to spell something, don’t use it. It is preferable to utilize simple, everyday terms.
• Do not include any personal or casual remarks. It is strictly forbidden.
• Once you’ve finished drafting your essay, proofread it. It enables you to scan for minor and large grammar and spelling problems.

This was the Essay on Space Exploration. We hope it was helpful to you. Experts at Leverage Edu will help you out in writing your essays for IELTS, SOPs and more!

Sonal is a creative, enthusiastic writer and editor who has worked extensively for the Study Abroad domain. She splits her time between shooting fun insta reels and learning new tools for content marketing. If she is missing from her desk, you can find her with a group of people cracking silly jokes or petting neighbourhood dogs.

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The Ethics of Space Exploration

Date: 19 November 2020

Although we can’t yet be certain that space is the final frontier, it is without question the next one. Human space flight and the exploration of space has fascinated the human imagination for millennia. From the myth of Icarus to Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon , we imagined what it would be like to fly near the sun or to explore the moon long before our technology could get us there.

Of course, space travel is no longer the stuff of science fiction, and we needn’t worry that the sun will melt our wax wings sending us plummeting to the earth. For over half a century it has been technologically possible to fly to space and more recently to explore its vast reaches. In the relatively short time since the first human space flight in 1961, technological possibilities have expanded greatly, opening a wide variety of opportunities for humans in space that include scientific research, private tourism, earth observation, exploration of deep space, and even the potential for off-world sustainable living. Given our ever-increasing ventures into space, space has become more a set of activities than a location.

At Trilateral we offer expertise in these areas and are excited to join partners in exploring these topics in research or education projects.

New Developments

One recent and important change to the exploration of space is that it is no longer the exclusive destination of government funded space programs. Private businesses, most notably SpaceX and Virgin Galactic, have already made a significant imprint in this sector, with Virgin Galactic building the world’s first commercial spaceport in New Mexico, and SpaceX teaming up with NASA to construct the latest rocket that successfully delivered astronauts to the International Space Station. Moreover, ushering in a new era witnessing for the first time non-professional astronauts in space, several companies have publicly stated their plan to take tourists into space, while the company Space Adventures has already sent paying customers on a 10-day trip to the ISS, each of whom paid in excess of $20mn.

Reflecting a renewed public interest in space exploration, the European Space Agency (ESA) has invested €14.4bn in space exploration up to 2022. This investment includes the assembly and operation of the lunar “Gateway” space station, which will serve as a staging station for missions to the moon and to Mars allowing astronauts to stay in space for longer amounts of time traveling back to the Gateway to stock up on supplies without travelling back to Earth.

Looking even further into the future, both NASA and ESA are doing tentative research on long-duration human space flight, setting up a permanent residence on the moon and the potential for the colonization of Mars.

Ethical Questions

As more money is invested in space, as more people—both professional astronauts as well as tourists—travel to space, as our spaceships are able to venture farther out into the galaxy, these fascinating developments in space exploration raise a myriad of ethical questions, both theoretical and practical:

• Does the space environment (including the solar system and beyond) contain anything of inherent value?
• Do we have an ethical obligation to limit our activities on space entities such as asteroids, comets, moons, or planets? Or are they there for us to research and exploit? Are we ethically permitted to take resources from the moon or other planets for use on earth? Should we preserve pristine space environments?
• If we discover extraterrestrial life, including microbial, would it deserve our moral consideration? For what reasons? To what extent?
• If long duration space flight becomes technologically feasible, would it be justifiable to send humans into space for years or decades? What are the risks involved?
• If we discover that another planet, e.g. Mars, would be habitable if we drastically altered the landscape, also known as terraforming, are we justified in doing so?
• What challenges would space colonies face both in terms of physical survival but also in terms of psychological hardships?

Questions about current practices raise practical questions demanding more immediate answers:

• Is the current budget allocated for space exploration justifiable when there are injustices on earth that need urgent attention?
• How can we clean up the vast amount of space junk in orbit? How can we avoid future missions adding to this pollution?
• How can we further exploit satellites for earth observation to combat climate change, or to provide digital education to the world’s population?
• Does space belong to no one or to everyone? What are the legal ramifications of this answer?
• Is outer space akin to the American Wild West where prospectors can claim planetary resources on a first-come first-served basis? If not, which regulatory protocols do we need in place?
• How can we foster continued international collaboration in space?
• Is exploration a good in its own right, or is it only justifiable if it yields actionable research?
• Are we justified in asking astronauts to engage in such high-risk activity which literally changes their bodies in terms of fluid distribution, loss of body mass, and sleeplessness?  

Addressing these questions

In order to answer ethical questions, we ordinarily appeal to the three most prominent ethical theories of the Western tradition: consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics. Space ethics is no different—at least in terms of where we should begin. It is sensible to begin addressing the above questions by contemplating how they each fit into our available ethical frameworks. What are the risks and consequences of further space exploration? Are there inviolable values that can direct and constrain our actions on space? Is the development and cultivation of virtuous characteristics that prepare us to act in an ethical way the best approach when the moral landscape is uncertain and unpredictable?

These traditional theories are not the only ethical frameworks we can appeal to. Perhaps the ethics of care, principlism, prima facie duties, theories of justice, and an ethic of responsibility can aid our inquiry as well.

Owing to the radically unforeseeable aspects of continued human activity in space, we must also ask the meta-ethical question of whether these normative theories and frameworks, which were constructed to guide human action and interaction on earth, are relevant to the space environment. Is future human activity in space relevantly similar to that of human activity on earth such that our ethical theories and frameworks are still valid for our intentions and actions there? Or are our values and norms thoroughly terrestrial requiring a new space ethics?

We want to work with you

Space exploration has long fascinated the mind and stimulated human imagination in vast ways. Yet it also elicits critical questions concerning meta-ethics, bioethics, environmental ethics, research ethics, business ethics, moral standing, as well as critical political and policy issues relevant to technology designers, engineers, policy makers, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, and moral and political philosophers. Space ethics is undoubtedly the next frontier of ethical inquiry.

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How space exploration benefits life on Earth: An interview with David Eicher

We spoke to Astronomy magazine editor-in-chief David Eicher about key challenges facing our planet, the importance of space exploration for humanity, and the possibility of life beyond Earth

29 Apr 2024  •  , 10 min. read

With Starmus Earth: The Future of Our Home Planet around the corner, we sat down with David Eicher, the Astronomy Magazine editor-in-chief and one of the event’s speakers, to hear his thoughts on a diverse range of subjects – from the most pressing challenges facing our home planet to the mysteries of the universe and the possibility of life beyond Earth.

WeLiveSecurity: Did you observe the solar eclipse that occurred recently? What was it like for you?

David Eicher: I had a wonderful time observing the recent solar eclipse in Dallas, at Love Field Airport, with a big group of people including representatives from Celestron, the most prominent manufacturer of telescopes for the astronomy hobby. We set up at the Frontiers of Flight Museum at the airport and also partnered with The Weather Channel, the TV station in the United States that broadcasts continuous weather information. So I was off and on camera throughout the day with meteorologist Alexandra Wilson, and we discussed all sorts of things about the eclipse. The weather in Texas looked bleak on eclipse morning, but a short time before the eclipse started the clouds parted and we had a perfect view of the eclipse. We had 3 minutes 51 seconds of totality and it was a spectacular sight! 

Was it a special moment for an astronomer such as yourself?

It is always a very special moment to see a total eclipse. Although we’ve known about the precision of solar system orbits since the days of Johannes Kepler in the 17 th  century, it always amazes people to count down and see an eclipse start just when it is calculated to begin. Quite a few people who have never seen an eclipse become emotional when seeing their first one — some tear up! It is always special. I’ve seen 13 total eclipses, and it always strikes you with the majesty of the cosmos, and reminds us of how small we are down here on Earth. 

David J. Eicher (born August 7, 1961) is an American editor, writer, and popularizer of astronomy and space. He has been editor-in-chief of Astronomy magazine since 2002. He is author, co-author, or editor of 21 books on science and American history and is known for having founded a magazine on astronomical observing, Deep Sky Monthly, when he was a 15-year-old high school student.

You will be a part of the STARMUS festival in Bratislava. What are you most looking forward to?

I am always looking forward to Starmus, and our leader Garik [ Garik Israelian – ed. note] always designs the festival so it is surprising and even more magnificent than the last one. I will be speaking on galaxies, hosting some of the main festival on stage, helping to organize and run the astrophoto school and the star party. So I will be busy with lots of stuff. But I think there’s nothing more special at Starmus than seeing dear old friends once again, and making new friends. The Starmus crowd is really composed of special, and magical people who love and value their knowledge of science, and the great celebration of being human through our wonderful music. 

This year's festival theme is "The Future of Our Home Planet." What is your perspective on this question and what is the biggest challenge our society is facing today?

This is of course a very critical time to always remember the question of the future of our home planet. We take Earth as a habitat and our life on Earth for granted. It is in now way guaranteed to be stable forever. We know that life on Earth will come to an end a billion years from now when the Sun boils the oceans off our planet through its increasing radiation. But global warming and climate change driven by carbon dioxide emissions — really a very simple and straightforward and obvious problem, not complicated to understand — threatens future generations of life on our planet in the immediate future. We must use Starmus and the expertise of climate scientists who will speak to us to curtail emissions and take better care of our planet before the situation is suddenly and irreversibly too late. 

DON'T MISS: What makes Starmus unique? Q&A with award-winning filmmaker Todd Miller

Can astronomy contribute to combating climate change or potentially solving other challenges we face today? If so, which ones?

Astronomy can definitely contribute to combating climate change. We must share the knowledge of what is happening to Earth, and too many people are uninformed, have agendas to avoid doing the right thing (like working for industries like oil and gas), or simply don’t care about what happens to life on the planet a hundred generations from now. Most people care only about their own present time in the cosmos and their own life experience. We need to share as much clear knowledge as we can with the world, with the public, with the media, from leading climate scientists like many who will be in Bratislava.

Only by constantly beating the drum can we raise awareness among all the peoples of the world to really push change forward. We can certainly use astronomy to raise awareness of other problems too. One that is a little more squarely on astronomy is light pollution. Two centuries ago everyone in the world had a dark night sky. Now most places are flooding photons skyward, ruining our view of the universe, and accomplishing nothing but wasting energy and making energy companies wealthy. 

Can you personally imagine permanently leaving Earth and living on another planet?

I would love to leave Earth and live on another planet, at least for a while, in a sense of grand adventure. But it is really incredibly difficult to ponder, unlike the sci-fi stories we love. The most earthlike worlds near us, Mars for example, are really very hostile places. Matt Damon may grow potatoes on Mars in the movies, but in reality it is a very cold, dry, and difficult environment, and even traveling to Mars is a very long and dangerous gambit, in terms of complexities of spaceflight, radiation exposure, and expense. So we have a long, long way to go as humans, in reality, until we are permanently or semi-permanently on other worlds. 

I can really imagine such a thing – one of my favorite movies is 2001: A Space Odyssey, but I think the journeys to other habitable planets and actually living on another world are a long, long way off. Even getting to another solar system outside our own would require a vast and almost unimaginable amount of energy, and would be an extremely long trip at best, on human timescales. But it would be a wonderful adventure!

What discovery, which is within reach or at least imaginable, do you think could cause a dramatic shift in the course humanity is currently taking?

I think the largest discovery in terms of shaking up our society on Earth will be the discovery of life on another world. We know through spectroscopy that chemistry is uniform throughout the universe, and we know that organics are common everywhere. The only sample of cometary material returned to Earth, by the Stardust mission, contained amino acids. We know that countless worlds exist in the cosmos. The Milky Way Galaxy contains something like 400 billion stars, nearly all with planetary systems, we believe, and the universe holds at least 100 billion galaxies. The idea that life or advanced life only exists here is crazy. And yet we don’t yet have the evidence that life exists elsewhere. When it arrives, it will be psychologically and philosophically earth-shaking to everyone who is alive. 

FURTHER READING: 'A woman from Mars': Life in the pursuit of space exploration

As a science communicator, do you think we are successful in communicating scientific findings today that are trustworthy or believable by the majority of the population?

I think we are at the best moment in history thus far in terms of communicating science to the public. More high-quality science is happening now than ever before, and we are communicating the results in great detail. But the Internet does offer vast numbers of low-quality sites, along with all sorts of nonsense on social media, and so we need to constantly beat the drum that people need to think about sources and find high-quality, credible sources of information. Many people take any source of info they read at the same level, and of course there’s lots of nonsense out there along with meaningful information. 

What do you think is currently the biggest mystery or challenge in the world of astronomy?

The biggest mystery in the world of astronomy is the nature of dark energy. In 1998 astronomers found that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, driven by an unseen force known as dark energy. We know that this force makes up about two-thirds of the matter/energy in the cosmos, and we don’t yet know what it’s made of. Would you like a guaranteed Nobel Prize? Solving the mystery of dark energy will get you one. 

What do we learn about humanity when we look into the distant reaches of space?

When we look into the distant reaches of space, we learn a vast amount about humanity. After all, we are, as Carl Sagan famously said, literally made of star stuff. The atoms in our bodies were literally produced either in the early days of the cosmos, in so-called Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, or mostly in the deaths of low-mass and high-mass stars. They are simply rearranged in our living bodies. So we are looking out into space to see our own origin story — where we came from, perhaps why we are here, and maybe even where we are going.

Some argue that it doesn't make sense to explore the depths of space when we need to address serious problems here on Earth. What do you think are the greatest benefits of what we have already learned about the universe and space?

DE: The struggle between spending monies and effort on things right here on Earth and for exploration and understanding of the universe is an old one. On one hand, the exploration of space is an intellectual pursuit. If you don’t care at all about the nature of the universe you live in, or where you came from, or why you exist, and you simply want to have a good hamburger for lunch and be left alone, so be it. But the efforts and expense of exploring the cosmos have often paid off with enormous benefits in multiple ways, just as the early explorations of the globe via sailing ships also paid off in practical ways. Do you value having your cell phone? What it does for you in your everyday life? The space programs of NASA and other agencies have fueled all manner of technologies that also get used in everyday life. Without the Apollo program, you would have microchips the way we do now and your precious cell phone. And there are countless other examples of benefits that have come from scientific research. So it is really naïve to think of “either we explore the universe or make life better on Earth.” The two in fact are linked. 

Is the universe infinite?

This is a really good question, and the simple answer is that we don’t know!! :) I mentioned dark energy before. We know that the size of the cosmos is at least 93 billion light-years — that’s the diameter of the visible universe we can observe. But in a complicated way, if dark energy is what we think it might be, then the universe might really be infinite. It sounds like science fiction, but it may be true. We just don’t know yet. Stay tuned! 

How does astronomy or astrophysics address the question of parallel universes?

Mathematics tells us that other universes could exist. In astrophysics we use the term multiverse a lot, short for multiple universes. But knowing that something is mathematically possible and actually observing it are two different things. By definition, we can observe things in our universe, but can’t see beyond it. So if other universes exist, we may never know. Some astronomers are toying with ideas that the evidence for other universes could somehow be imprinted in some way in our universe, and we could detect this, but this is a long way from certain. So there very well might be other universes, and the odds are leaning toward the notion that if there are, we may never know about them.

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Argumentative Essay: Is Space Exploration Worth It?

Space, the final frontier. We are born with an elemental eagerness to make the unknown known, to discover the undiscovered. Since ancient times, we have ventured far and wide. That inexorable vigor has perhaps become humanity’s greatest virtue. And so then, the question is, are we done? We have explored the extremities of our planet, and space is mankind’s next giant leap. Therefore, we must wonder, is it worth it? Is exploring the infinite stretch of space worth our effort and our time?

Humans have had the fortunately unfortunate burst of technology, innovation and knowledge all in an incredibly short span of time. For thousands of years, we remained almost entirely primitive, and so, this dramatic shift in our way of life has not allowed our intellect to catch up to our achievements. We face the problems of today, with the judgment of our ancestors.

Keeping that in mind, we will attempt to arrive upon our conclusion by being as critical as possible, and taking into account both credits and benefits of space exploration, as well as its pitfalls and shortcomings. To do this, we will look at the issue through a multitude of lenses, including: socio-economic, scientific, environmental, and philosophical. Hopefully, after reading through this short essay, you will have learned something new, and perhaps have formulated a slightly different opinion of space, exploration, and the necessity to innovate in general.

Exploration has always been expensive. Space exploration is many folds more expensive. NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, received about US $18 Billion in funding for the 2015 fiscal year. It used this to launch new space shuttles, research new technologies, send probes to Mars, and other space-related activities (FY 2015) . On the other hand, the military sector alone constituted of around $500 billion of the total budget, or 30x the total expenditure of the US into the development of space (Federal Budget). In total, the United States of America’s federal budget for the year of 2015 was $3.7 trillion dollars (Federal Budget). When compared to the national budget, NASA had a paltry 0.5% of total, while still achieving many incredible things.

Assigning a solid number on the economics may prove to be difficult, as such a number would be extremely difficult to quantify. And even if we could, it probably would not do us any good. That is why for the most part, it is easier to speak qualitatively, and reference past triumphs and defeats.

A database found on NASA’s websites titled Spinoffs, contains all of its innovation in various sectors as a direct result of space exploration. From water filters to memory foam, to solar panels and satellite television, NASA has had an unprecedented hand in shaping many aspects of our modern society without us even realizing. NASA also spends many millions of its budget to invest in smaller companies that provide them with new technology and research. There are detailed infographics available from NASA, that show exactly how much and where they have invested (Dunbar).

If we did have to put a number on it, a report from NASA’s administration calculated that space-related activities contributed around $180 billion to the American economy in 2005. That is to say, that every dollar invested in space, yielded $10 in return (Griffin).

Even Canada, with its meager and often invisible space program, is also reaping riveting benefits. According to Robert Thirsk, “Canadian taxpayers typically invest about $250 million per year into the space program, but… [see a return of] over $3 billion dollars a year of revenue.” He went on to talk about the intangibles, concepts such as national pride, inspiration, and the continuation of a legacy of brilliance.

On another note, the European Space Agency managed an incredible feat: they successfully landed a probe on an asteroid (“Rosetta”). Currently, NASA is also working on a project (dubbed Osiris) to send a probe to another near-Earth asteroid, and bring back samples. The samples of course will be used for further research, but what this entails is that without doubt, space agencies are making great strides in their endeavors (“Osiris”).

However irrelevant the asteroid landing may seem, if properly assessed, asteroids carry with them great fortunes. Precious metals such as gold and platinum sell for $50,000 per kilogram, and even a small asteroid could be worth up to $30 billion (Elvis). While the technology to actually mine an asteroid is a far off prospect, it will definitely be one of the many by-products of research and development into space.

Regardless, you may hold the opinion that there are bigger, more pressing issues that need our attention. And you would be correct! Problems such as world hunger, poverty, disease, our depleting sources of energy, and environmental decay are all, paradoxically, on scale much larger than space . In the beginning, it was stated that we have an archaic mindset while trying to tackle the ever-shifting paradigms of the new world. This has split most people into two groups: those who believe our problems will simply disappear with time, and those who believe our problems will disappear with time, but only if we ceaselessly – and carelessly erect constructs of cash to halt these problems in their wake.

However, as time has told, both these methods seem to have done little, as transparent darknesses akin to those mentioned above continue to creep up our tiny world. And so, we must adopt a new way of thinking, a new way of doing, if we are to stand a chance.

An article on Forbes highlighted a discussion with renowned astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson . Part of the interview that particularly resonated well with us was when he said: “if you want to get people to build a boat, don’t drum up wood and supplies, teach them to yearn for the open sea,” which is a variation of a quote by another author. Essentially, Tyson is attempting to tell us that to fix our problems, to really fix our problems, we need to restructure our solutions from the ground up. In recent years, there has been a tendency to throw money wherever something we do not like shows up, expecting it to go away. But that simply does not work. What we need now is innovation. Innovation leads to inspiration which will ultimately lead to more innovation.

According to Tyson, investing into space exploration will lead to a “culture of innovation,” a phenomenon that he likens to those nameless yearners of the sea, who now possess both the resources and necessary drive to better their world. When the best scientists have the necessary resources to find ground breaking discoveries and create amazing new technology, the applications for said technology will surely be used for more than just some space probes and telescopes.

With the advent of the new and the amazing, enthusiasm will seep into the general public, and into the children of today who will be the leaders of tomorrow. More people will go into medicine and math, and even those who do not, will still have a culture of innovation ingrained in them. And when we have the best people working on problems that we did not even know existed, the outcome will be the solutions to our everyday problems .

Thus far, space is both viable and welcome, but before we get ahead of ourselves, the discussion of the particular nature of our travels needs to be catalogued, particularly the many trials and tribulations. Space exploration is not only expensive, but difficult; it is more challenging than the hardiest of our troubles. The colloquial phrase: “it’s not rocket science,” is no misnomer. Even if NASA and other space agencies have the necessary resources to fund their research, they will hit the next mantle head on. It is time we discuss the scientific and environmental lenses.

The best place to begin would be to explore the engineering technicalities. Space exploration has a multitude of issues in this area. The weight of the spacecraft and the cost of sending materials into space is astronomical; for each kilogram of payload and spacecraft itself, it costs $10,000 and $22 000, respectively (“Paving the Highway to Space”). The reusability, or lack thereof, also poses another obstacle. As of now, we have yet to create even one fully reusable space shuttle (“Reusability”), but it has the potential to reduce costs “[by] as much as a factor of a hundred.” (Musk)

On another front, we have made little progress on the medical side effects of having humans in space. Eventually, we will have to conduct long term experiments where the sheer distances between celestial bodies will become a clear issue. The moon at its closest is about 384,400 km away (“Earth’s Moon”), and everything else is millions or billions of kilometers from us. These distances obviously take long periods of time to traverse, implying either space crafts will need to become faster or people will need to be in space for extended periods of time. The latter will result in a host of medical and technical issues that we have yet to resolve:

Gamma radiation is not deflected by our kind and fluffy, atmosphere, resulting in increased risks of cancer and Alzheimer’s disease along with reduced cognitive abilities (Cherry et al). Additionally, gamma radiation in space can damage electronics over time leading to the failure of the computers used in the space craft (Fiore 1561-2).

The lack of gravity, or microgravity, is another potent problem. Microgravity is defined as a weak gravitational force. It may sound harmless, but human bodies have not evolved to be in zero gravity, so we cannot yet be present under the influence of vastly different gravitational forces. Blood in our legs will get redistributed to the head, blood volume will decrease by up to 10% within 24 hours, motion sickness will occur, muscles will atrophy, bone mass will decrease, and the immune system will become impaired. All increasingly bleak prospects for any future champions of space (Williams et al).

Due to the lack of progress on the medical effects of putting humans in a space environment, we only have methods of reducing the reducing the severity of these effects rather than fully preventing them. On top of that, these symptoms are from missions lasting less than one year long (Williams et al), meaning the side effects of long term exposure to a space environment is still unknown.

We must also look at the environmental effect that space exploration has on the ozone. To put it briefly, think of the ozone as the peel of an orange, and as the layer becomes feebler, consequently, it becomes more susceptible to damage. Since there are many future rocket launches planned – for longer durations of time, and with a greater frequency, a deeper understanding of the effect that rocket launches have is needed. Currently, only by a few hundredths of one percent, do global rocket launches deplete the ozone layer (Ross). However, this figure is expected to exacerbate with the increase in space exploration. A single radical (highly reactive trace-molecule) can decimate upwards of 10,000 ozone molecules (Ross).

Outside the Earth, just as intriguing a process is occurring: the orbiting of a copious amount of debris around Earth . The NASA Orbital Debris Program Office defines debris as “all man-made objects in orbit about the Earth, which no longer serve a useful purpose.” Examples of such, include: decrepit fragments of spacecraft, upper stages of launch vehicles, debris created as a result of explosions or collisions and solid rocket motor effluents.

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Money Spent on Developing the Technology for Space Exploration - IELTS Task 2 Band 9 Sample Essay

Write about the following topic:

Some people think the money spent on developing the technology for space exploration is not justified. There are more beneficial ways to spend this money.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge and experiences.

You should write at least 250 words.

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Sample Essay 1

The debate surrounding the allocation of funds for space exploration versus pressing terrestrial concerns sparks considerable discourse. I assert that while addressing immediate global issues is crucial, the investment in space technology heralds significant long-term benefits for humanity, including technological advancements and international collaboration.

Firstly, the technological innovations spurred by space exploration have far-reaching impacts on our daily lives. The pursuit of space science has been the bedrock of numerous technological breakthroughs, from satellite communication facilitating global connectivity to advancements in weather forecasting, which saves lives by predicting natural disasters. These technologies, initially conceived for space, have seamlessly integrated into our everyday existence, enhancing both efficiency and safety. Moreover, space exploration acts as a catalyst for STEM education, inspiring future generations to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. This ripple effect ensures a sustained advancement in diverse technological fields, contributing to economic growth and improved quality of life on Earth.

Furthermore, space exploration represents the zenith of global collaboration, merging nations with shared aspirations beyond Earth's borders. Initiatives like the International Space Station (ISS) showcase the potential for worldwide solidarity in chasing collective ambitions. Such partnerships not only cultivate peace and understanding among diverse nations but also amalgamate resources, specialized knowledge, and innovation. This amalgamation significantly magnifies the efficacy of investments in space technology, fostering a synergy that sparks breakthroughs unattainable by any country in isolation. This collective endeavor underscores the profound importance of venturing into the uncharted territories of space, highlighting the invaluable returns of such pioneering investments.

In conclusion, while the immediate allocation of funds to terrestrial challenges is undeniably important, the investment in space exploration yields unparalleled long-term benefits. Through the lens of technological advancement and international collaboration, space exploration transcends mere scientific curiosity, positioning itself as a vital investment in our collective future.

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Sample Essay 2

The debate over the money spent on developing the technology for space exploration, often viewed as exorbitant, versus its deployment for arguably more pressing earthly endeavours, remains a contentious issue. I am of the opinion that, despite valid ground concerns, the investment in cosmic exploration yields indispensable advantages. This essay will elucidate the technological advances and long-term survival benefits space exploration affords, while also acknowledging the necessity of addressing immediate global challenges.

Space exploration, often critiqued for its heavy financial demands, indeed channels resources that could potentially serve immediate humanitarian needs. On Earth, billions contend with issues such as poverty, inadequate healthcare, and environmental threats, which undeniably require urgent attention and substantial funding. Redirecting funds from space programs could provide a short-term boost in these critical areas, offering immediate relief and tangible improvements in quality of life.

However, the perspective that deems space technology funding as myopic fails to consider the holistic benefits derived from space research. Numerous everyday conveniences, such as GPS systems that underpin global navigation, and advanced medical imaging techniques, are direct offshoots of space-related technology, underpinning myriad ancillary industries and creating a multitude of employment opportunities. Simultaneously, the long-term prospects of humanity may hinge on advancements in space science; as the esteemed physicist Stephen Hawking suggested, looking to the cosmos for alternative habitats could be critical in circumventing existential threats. Therefore, space exploration is not merely a luxury but a strategic investment in our species' long-term survival, catalyzing both technological innovation and economic development.

In conclusion, the investment in space exploration and its technological development is not only justified but essential, providing unparalleled advances and securing our species' future. The allocation of funds toward this end represents a strategic vision, harmonizing our current needs with the imperative of establishing a sustainable presence in the cosmos.

Sample Essay 3

The allocation of funds towards the niche of space exploration, specifically the money spent on developing technology for this ambitious venture, often sparks a heated debate. On one hand, the pressing needs of our planet beckon for immediate financial attention, while on the other, the cosmic realm offers untapped potential. This essay argues in favor of the latter, emphasizing the broader spectrum of benefits derived from such investments.

The argument against the money spent on developing technology for space exploration primarily revolves around the pressing terrestrial issues that could benefit from these substantial financial resources. It's undeniable that challenges like global poverty, healthcare deficiencies, and environmental crises demand urgent attention and funding. A redirection of funds from space programs to these immediate concerns could potentially catalyze improvements in these critical areas, yielding visible, short-term societal benefits.

However, this perspective somewhat shortsightedly overlooks the long-term advantages of space technology. The money spent on developing technology for space exploration has historically spurred groundbreaking innovations with widespread applications. For example, satellite technology, an offshoot of space research, has revolutionized global communication, weather forecasting, and even medical advancements such as MRI and CAT scans. These are concrete examples of how space technology transcends its original purpose, benefiting various aspects of everyday life on Earth.

Furthermore, investing in space technology extends beyond mere terrestrial benefits. It encompasses the broader vision of human survival and expansion. As Stephen Hawking poignantly highlighted, the future of humanity may eventually depend on our ability to colonize other planets. This daunting yet vital task underscores space exploration as not just a pursuit of knowledge but a necessary step for ensuring the longevity of our species.

In conclusion, while reallocating the money spent on developing technology for space exploration to address immediate global issues seems practical, the far-reaching implications of such investments are monumental. These advancements not only enrich and safeguard our present but also lay the foundation for a more secure and advanced future for humanity in the cosmic arena. Therefore, the expenditure on space technology development is not just a justified choice; it is an imperative one for both our current and future generations.

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How to Write an Essay on Space Exploration in IELTS? Tips and Samples

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Updated on 01 February, 2024

Mrinal Mandal

Study abroad expert.

International English Language Testing System  (IELTS) is one of the world’s leading English language tests that evaluates the English language proficiency among non-native speakers. Writing test task 2 of the IELTS exam is a descriptive essay-type question based on topics related to the general interest. The word limit is a minimum of 250 words, and the task duration is 40 minutes. This article discusses ‘ space exploration, a commonly asked topic for IELTS essays, to help test takers prepare well for the test. Here are the tips for writing the best essay and two samples ‘space exploration’ essays that you can follow.

Table of Contents

Word limit for the essay, time duration, type of question, essay topics.

• Sample 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Space Exploration

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• Essay sample 2:
• Tips to write a winning IELTS essay

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Applicants will have to write an essay in IELTS task 2 in response to a statement. The minimum word limit should be 250 words. There is no upper word limit. Make sure you are not writing less than 250 words, or it will be counted as an incomplete task. 

The time duration allotted for the writing task 2 essay is 40 minutes. You need to manage your time, so make sure you plan and write the essay within the stipulated time. Appear for mocks to work on your writing speed. 

In IELTS Essay writing, applicants need to write an essay while responding to a particular premise, statement, or argument. It is an informal descriptive essay, where the applicants need to prepare a 250-word write-up based on opinion, facts, arguments, and experiences. All the parts of the question need to be answered in the essay. 

The essay topics are based on general interest and academic modules. It is important to practice essay writing in common genres like art, education, crime, space, culture, tradition, social problems, and environment. 

Samples on Space Exploration Essay IELTS

Sample 1: advantages and disadvantages of space exploration .

Space exploration is the detailed exploration of space, the solar system, and the universe. It is explored by robotic spacecraft and spaceflights. Earlier ‘Space Race’ was only popular between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union achieved many milestones in its early days. It is a huge part of American history. On 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong along with Buzz Aldrin won the space race. Yet, there are many advantages and disadvantages of space exploration. Many opine that the space program costs high, and some take it as an invention.

Advantages of Space exploration

Inventions:

The global society has benefited through new inventions. The additional research conducted by NASA helped to benefit society in different ways. The discoveries benefit transportation, medicine, computer management, agriculture technology, and consumer goods. The space program helped in GPS technology, breast cancer treatment, lightweight breathing systems, Teflon fiberglass, etc. 

Employment:

One cannot deny the fact that space exploration generates numerous jobs globally. Spending less and making it more cost-effective is a better way to approach space exploration. Space research programs add too much to science, technology, and communication in the present unemployment scenario. And this results in a massive employment generation. 

Understanding: 

Time to time-space exploration programs and satellite missions by NASA help unravel the undiscovered facts about our universe. Scientists better understand the nature, atmosphere of Earth, and other space bodies. These are the exploration programs that make us aware of future natural disasters and other related predictions. It also paves the path to save our almighty universe from time to time. 

Conclusion: Every coin has two sides. To sustain on Earth, one has to face the challenge and overcome it. Space exploration is a vital activity that cannot be neglected but can be improved with technology.

Disadvantages of Space exploration

Pollution is one of the alarming concerns in space exploration. Every year, many satellites are launched in space, and not all of them return. Over time, the remains of such instances become debris and float in the air. Old satellites, different types of equipment, launching pads, pieces of rockets are all adding to pollutants. Space debris pollutes space in many ways. Space exploration is not only harming the environment but also space.  

A national space exploration program costs high. Many individuals argue that space mission programs are cost-effective. It must be noted that NASA in the recent program, celebrated its 30th anniversary with an expenditure of $196.5 billion.

Space exploration is not a bed of roses. Many historical events prove the danger associated with tragic incidents. One must focus on the incident on January 28, 1986, with the Challenger space shuttle. Within just 73 seconds, the shuttle exploded and resulted in a massive loss of life and property. 

Moreover, there are different opinions on the advantages of space exploration with more innovations and improved technologies.

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Essay sample 2: 

The first man to walk on the moon claimed it was a step forward for humankind. However, it has made little difference in most people’s lives.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

A greater number of people believe that space exploration has not made enough contribution to the lives of people. It has not made a sufficient impact if the expenses associated with it are justified. As per my understanding, various questions arise out of this, but if considered on an overall basis, the scientific impact is very encompassing. 

A man to the moon and expensive satellites and telescopes had no impact on the life of an average wage earner or the one without proper meals a day. A large population is still vulnerable and facing various economic challenges. Many enjoy watching the man traveling to the moon, or the NASA videos, but there is no justification for the huge amount of money that was spent over the years for space exploration. It could have made a lot of difference if these investments were directed towards employment, medicine, education, infrastructure, and culture. 

Nonetheless, the impacts are directly related to science and culture. A man on the moon was a moment of utilitarian concern. It was a powerful incident that encouraged countless lives to attain achievements. Space exploration has led to concrete and fruitful innovations. For example, new aspects of entertainment, microchip, the internet, and countless other discoveries. From small to huge, there are several discoveries, and the most important one can be staying connected throughout the globe. We are truly indebted to the funding of space exploration for all of these innovations and discoveries. 

Far from being utter waste, as some belief it to be, space exploration has been the reason for the progress of humankind. It must receive more support and advancement.

Tips to write a winning IELTS essay 

• The word length of the essay should be at least 250 words. There is no upper word limit. However, if you write less than 250 words, you may end up submitting an incomplete essay. The idea should be to write an essay of a minimum of 250 words. 
• The essay topic will have more than one question. All the parts of the questions are to be answered. For example, for the topic ‘crime is unavoidable’, here you may have questions like 1. Speak in favor and against this topic, 2. Give your opinion, 3. Suggest some measures to avoid crime. Now, this topic has three parts, and all the parts are to be answered; only then the essay will be complete. 
• Maintain the flow in writing. You cannot derail your thoughts and write an essay that is not relevant to the topic. The essay should be in complete sync with the question. The ideas in the essay should be directly related to the question. Use examples, experiences, and ideas that you can connect well with. 
• Organize your essay using linking phrases and words in a limited manner. Avoid using normal linking words, and go for adverbial phrases.
• The entire essay should be divided into small paragraphs with a minimum of two sentences each. There should be three parts to your essay, introduction, body, and conclusion. 
• Do not fill your essay with too many complicated and long words. Use collocations and idioms correctly. You must have a clear idea of using words and contexts.
• The essay should be grammatically correct. There should not be errors in terms of spelling, punctuation, and tenses. To avoid grammatical errors, avoid long and complicated sentences. Write short and crisp sentences. 
• Practice various essay questions like to agree/ disagree, discuss two opinions, advantages & disadvantages, causes, and solutions, causes and effects, and problem- solution. 
• Write a good introduction. The introduction should offer a clear idea about the rest of the content. An introduction is an important part of creating an impression and developing interest. 
• Use facts, statistics, and data if necessary. If you are unsure about the data and numbers, it is better to avoid any factual information. Do not write anything that you are not very sure about. 
• The body of the essay should be descriptive and contain all the points, facts, and information in a detailed manner. 
• The conclusion is prominent. The way you conclude your essay plays an important role in boosting your IELTS band. 
• Take care of the spelling mistakes. Do not write complicated spellings that you are not sure of. It is better to use simple and common words. 
• Do not write any informal or personal comments. It is not permitted strictly. 
• Proofread your essay once you are done writing. It helps you to scan minor and major issues in terms of grammatical and spelling errors. 

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Mrinal Mandal is a study abroad expert with a passion for guiding students towards their international education goals. He holds a degree in mechanical engineering, earned in 2018. Since 2021, Mrinal has been working with upGrad Abroad, where he assists aspiring students in realizing their dreams of studying abroad. With his expertise and dedication, he empowers individuals to navigate the complexities of international education, making their aspirations a reality.

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109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best space exploration topic ideas & essay examples, 📑 good research topics about space exploration, ⭐ simple & easy space exploration essay titles, 💡 interesting topics to write about space exploration, ❓ research questions about space exploration.

• The Future of Space Exploration The attitude of the researchers in this field is rather ambivalent; the main beneficial and negative points of space exploration would be covered in the next parts to make the argumentative and clear statement.
• The Importance of Space Exploration It is evident in the study that spaceflight was the most instrumental element that acted as the driving force and backbone of the exploration processes to the orbital surface.
• India’s Mission to Mars The writer of this paper argues that India’s mission to Mars indicates a lack of prioritization by the national government and therefore, a waste of resources.
• Planet Jupiter Facts and Information In terms of size, it is the largest of all the planets and it is number five from the sun.”The diameter of Jupiter is 142984 kilometers and its density is 1.
• The Main Reasons for Space Exploration In 1957, the Soviet successfully launched the first satellite into space that marked the beginning of space exploration. After the success of the Soviet’s satellite, the U.S.invested more into space exploration.
• Jupiter: From a Wandering Star to the King of the Planets In spite of the fact that Jupiter is more distant than Mars to the Earth, it is usually brighter, and it shines during the whole year around.
• The Planet Mars Information The bigger portion of the planet is covered with Borealis Basin that is one of the remarkable features on the surface of Mars.
• Space Exploration Problems On the other hand, people have an opportunity to study the processes which could be useful for understanding the origins of planets, galaxies and the universe in general. BNSC reflected on the plans that UK […]
• Venus: The Object for Research and Space Missions The current offer is unique in that it is planned to launch modules on the surface of Venus and keep them active for a long time.
• India’s Space Exploration Affairs Space exploration has become a key area of concern for modern scientists and this is evident from the many attempts being undertaken in the world today to explore every bit of the outer space.
• Space Exploration History and Prospects The exploration of space assists in addressing the central questions about humanity’s place in the history of the universe and the solar system. Scientists are working day and night to reveal ways of mitigating the […]
• Mars: The Exploration of the Red Planet Mars, the fourth planet in order of increasing distance from the sun and the first beyond the earth’s orbit. Following several crewless flybys and orbiters launched by the United States and by the Soviet Union, […]
• Space Exploration: Attitude & Recent Breakthrough It created the basis for the development of natural science and technologies. Moreover, from the social perspective, overcoming the challenges of surviving in space requires cooperation and the development of communities.
• A Mars Rover’s Risk Management The risk of a high obstacle, dictated by the motor’s power, can put the rover into an endless loop of attempts to climb to the surface, as a result of which fuel resources may run […]
• Landed Missions to Mars: The Perseverance Rover According to Farley et al, the mission of the Perseverance rover lies “in the deep search for evidence of life in a habitable extraterrestrial environment, and the return of Martian samples to Earth for analysis […]
• Use of Nanotechnology for Electric-Power Production on Mars This paper explores the possible options of electric-power production sources and attempts to gain insight into the benefits of the application of the most recent scientific developments, such as nanotechnology, for enhancing and expanding the […]
• Space Exploration Mission: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The historical development of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is anchored on the dual mission which was targeted for in the 2003 Mars launch window; nonetheless, within the course of the drafting the proposal the MRO was […]
• Space Exploration: The Venus Observation Mission However, the implementation of the new machinery will be further needed to collect and transfer data from Venus to the Earth.
• Liquid Lake on Mars As a matter of fact, it is also an interesting article because it revolves around the probability of having a new form of life in the Solar System outside the Earth.
• Mars Reconnaissance Orbital Some challenges were encountered with two of the devices mounted on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in November. The HiRISE installed in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown over time that, it is of great importance […]
• Humanities: Galileo and Four Moons of Jupiter Galileo would have value to the Medicis only insofar as he was seen to be a great discoverer of new things and a brilliant philosopher, the doyen of his profession.
• Technology Uncertainty in Space Exploration Hence, learning the complexity of the project to be undertaken takes the largest part of the entire process. In an environment where projects have to be undertaken, organizations cannot elude the dire need of integrating […]
• The Contributions of Dwight Eisenhower to America’s Success in Their Space Exploration Efforts When he took over the presidency he saw the importance of incorporating space technology in the country’s defense mechanism and in this respect he directed that the construction of ballistic missiles and also the construction […]
• “Mars the Abode of Life” by Percival Lowell The main arguments of the book revolve around the genesis of the world, the evolution of life, the dominance of the sun, Mars and the future of the earth, the canals and oases of Mars […]
• General Features of Jupiter 86 years to complete one orbit The distance of Jupiter from the earth taken on 4th June 2013 at 0655 hours GMT is 4.6 AU. The distance of Jupiter from the sun as of now […]
• Mars Curiosity Mission’s Astronomical Research In addition, the age of the samples coincides with the date where the water was present on the planet, according to the current understanding.
• Gifts of Mars: Warfare and Europe’s Early Rise to Riches The article “Gifts of Mars: Warfare and Europe’s early rise to riches” by Nico Voigtlander and Hans-Joachim Voth illustrate how the political situation in Europe had shaped the economic development of the continent in the […]
• Inner Space Exploration Vehicles There are three common types of underwater vehicles such as autonomous underwater vehicle, human occupied vehicles, and remotely operated vehicles. In addition, there are some human occupied vehicles that are simply used to visit life […]
• Space Exploration Aviation Safety: Challenger and Columbia Among the variety of accidents that take human lives in the sphere of aviation, the cases of Challenger and Columbia remain to be one of the most significant and influential.
• Space Exploration Accidents: Challenger and Columbia The failure in the joint of the elements of the rocket motor caused the Challenger catastrophe. The analysis of the accidents led to the development of a number of recommendations.
• A Trip to Mars: Approximate Time, Attaining Synchrony & Parking Orbit 9 years and in essence one can draw this logical induction that the elliptical orbit through which an astronomer moves from the Earth to Mars is relatively shorter than the elliptical orbit of Mars and […]
• Mars: Water and the Martian Landscape According to McSween, scientists and astronomers find the study of the environment of Mars and the existence of flowing of water on the surface of the planet of special interest.
• Astronomy Issues: Life on Mars Indeed, the absence of living microorganisms in the soil is a clear indication of the absence of water on the red planet.
• Market Based Approaches for Controlling Space Mission Costs This has however been addressed and there has been a recommendation that in any future missions using the same system, a mechanism has to be put in place that combines the development and operational phases […]
• Prospects of finding life in Mars Astronomers have found that the length of a typical day in Mars is similar to that of the Earth. This means that there is no water existed on the surface of Mars.
• Mercury Exploration and Space Missions The density of this planet is almost the same to that of the earth and this explains why the winds carried the eroded soils.
• Is there evidence of life on martian meteorites? Until then, researchers need to do the hard work of verifying or refuting existing theories and counterchecking any new evidence that could be contained in the Martian meteorites According to Buseck et al, Nanocrystals of […]
• International Space Exploration: Improving Human Life Advances in space exploration, particularly the creation of the International Space Station, has enhanced the observation of the globe to provide better comprehension and solutions to environmental matters on earth.
• Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The objectives include the search for past and/or present life on the planet, assess the presence and nature of the resources available in the planet for human exploration as well as understanding the climate and […]
• Why the Water Bears are the Most Appropriate Animals to Send to Mars for Human Research The water bears are the first animals known to be able to endure the insensitive atmospheric combination of low pressure and extreme radiation found in space.
• MAVEN Mission on Mars Factors related to the degree of radiation, the temperature of the planet, the level of ion dispersion within the atmosphere and the ability of solar wind to affect the Martian surface are all factors that […]
• Missions to Mars: Past, Present, and Future In this dual mission to Mars, Mariner 6 and 7 enabled the scientists to analyze the surface of Mars and the Martian atmosphere through the remote sensors in the spacecrafts besides the Mariners taking and […]
• Development of New Space Vehicles: Manned Flight to the Moon and Mars The Apollo 11 landing on the surface of the Moon represents the highest point yet in the conquest of the cosmos by man.
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• What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Space Exploration?
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IvyPanda. (2023, October 26). 109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/space-exploration-essay-topics/

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Space Exploration Essays

by Arvind Sharma (India)

Space exploration is much too expensive and the money should be spent on more important things. What is your opinion? In many countries, a big proportion of expenditure is being spent on exploring the space. It is argued that this expenditure should be spent on other important things rather than on space exploration. However, in my opinion, keep other significant things in mind, space program is very crucial and important for the whole world and should be funded due to the fact that it will help to improve the communication between countries in the world and also helping to search a new alternate to live. To begin, a reason to support funding space program is communication between all over the globe. Because business and organizations are being expanded geographically, they need a communication channel to run these businesses in an effective manner. It has become possible after launching satellites in the orbit. For instance, NASA, which is a reputed space organization has launched many satellites in the orbit, which are being used to broadcast the signals in the form of audio and video to across the globe. Moreover, the satellite television has only become possible due the space programs, and people are able to watch the global events instantly from anywhere. Thus, it can be said that by doing the space exploration, world communication has utterly been changed and for this reason it should be financially aided. Furthermore, As global warming has become a serious concern for the whole world, scientist have started to find the alternate planet to live. Due to this fact, there are going to be conducted more space programs and eventually more money is needed to support these programs. For instance, ISRO, which is an Indian space research organization has been funded by the Indian government. As a result, they have managed to launch own satellite without help of other countries. In addition, there is a need to resolve the problem of global warming and this could only be possible if more space programs will be aided financially. Thus, it has been important for every country to give financial support to these programs so that the next generation can live in a better place. In conclusion, I firmly believe that space program should be supported financially as there is need to get together the whole world to improve the communication and fight against the environmental problems. *** Please can you check my essay on space exploration.

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Spending Money on Space Exploration

by sayali vilas jadhav (pune)

Money spent on space exploration is a waste and can be put to better use on earth. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Nowadays, most of the countries in the world are giving more importance to space exploration because it is a thing of pride for a country to achieve success in space exploration. According to me, money spends on space exploration is worth as this gives us a chance for us to know new things around us. space exploration gives us a chance to innovate new things for the welfare of people.As we know, we found out that there is water on the moon. Due to this scientists planning for sending people to the moon to minimize population and to provide quality life to people. But sometimes I feel that the money which we are spending on space exploration can be minimized and put into the welfare of poor people. due to this roadside children may also get an education and poor people may get jobs. The bottom line is there should be a balance between both things as both things are good for the welfare of people. space exploration is also important like minimizing the poverty from the country.

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Contacting Aliens Essay

by LennyBoyyy

Some Scientists think that there are intelligent life forms on other planets and messages should be sent to contact them. Other scientists think it is a bad idea and would be dangerous. Discuss both views and give your own opinion. The opinions of scientists go apart when it comes to the topic of other life forms. Some say there exist other life forms and that they should be contacted, while others would not do that because it could be dangerous. There are without a doubt pros and cons regarding this topic, but in my opinion it would not be a good idea to contact them, because I would find it better to gain some knowledge about the other life forms before you contact them. On the first hand would It be an unbelievable success to get to know other life forms. Scientists are searching for other life forms probably since decades, but never got any signs. Millions of Dollars were spent to reach these goal. It would change drastically people’s lives. In addition, the technology could in cooperation with the other life forms, advance massively. On the other hand, could the contact with other life forms become very dangerous, because of the lack of knowledge the humanity has regarding other life forms. Not knowing how your communicating partner looks like, functions or thinks could be very risky. Additionally, it could be also the case that there don’t exist other life forms and that huge amounts of money were spend without any sense. Summarized, I would not try to contact other life forms, because the cons in form of the uncertainty if other life forms exist and the danger in which humanity could be exposed exceeds in my opinion the pros in form of the probability that other life could be found and that a stable communication could be build.

Spending Resources to Explore Space

by Nidhi Pareek (Ahmedabad )

Some people think that space exploration is a waste of resources while others think that it is essential for human kind to continue to explore the universe in which we live. Discuss both views and give your own opinion. It is an undeniable fact that over the past few years space exploration has become one of the most discussed topics in today’s society. As a result, some people think that studying space is crucial for humanity, others argue that it is a waste of resources. In this essay, I would like to put forth my views on both the sides with a valid opinion in the conclusion. Firstly, space research has many benefits such as latest technological advancements in satellite communications which include smartphones, satellite television and radio broadcasting are all breakthrough of space research. Furthermore, space research is important for getting minute-details of weather conditions and it also provides the future predictions of climatic conditions. Moreover, space scientists are keen to find the possibility of life on other planets like Mars and if they get success then growing population problem of earth will be solved. Finally, having well developed space research organisation in any country is a matter of prestige for government and it's citizens. However, we seldom give a thought to ponder over the other side of this essay so there are some drawbacks of space research and that is why some people are against the exploration of space. Foremostly, space research requires colossal amount of budget and it is a time consuming study. Furthermore, success ratio of space research is very low. In addition, risk of life is always there with space explorations. For an example, in the year 2006 a prominent astronaut of NASA, Ms. Kalpana Chawla and her team travelled to space for research but unfortunately their space-shuttle crashed while they were returning back to earth. The seemingly inexorable description about the space research can keep on going. Nevertheless, showing a deep reverence and observing the finer nuance of the matter mentioned above I espouse the notion of supporting that space research is an essential part for an economic development but as we all know it is considered as the most expensive scientific discovery so countries should collaborate and there should be a joint efforts for space studies to make it cost effective.

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5 Reasons Space Exploration Is More Important Than Ever

Year by year, humanity's situation on Earth becomes more precarious. With climate change , economic insecurity, and viral pandemics stressing the world's resources, why spend all this money on  space ? It's easy to see why this argument comes up: there are big problems to solve here on Earth, and going to space is expensive. This oversimplification ignores the nature of humanity, the drive that has made us the dominant species on Earth. If we want to stay that way, space exploration is vital. Here are five reasons why we belong up there.

New Technologies and Research

Humans did not evolve to go into space, but we go there anyway. That has led to the development of various technologies that feed back into the economy and improve our lives on Earth. Without space programs, we wouldn't have GPS, accurate weather prediction, solar cells, or the ultraviolet filters in sunglasses and cameras. There's also medical research happening in space right now that could cure diseases and prolong human lives, and these experiments can't be done on Earth. Space exploration could save your life.

Asteroids Don't Care About Us

Speaking of saving lives, space exploration could save all our lives. The solar system has calmed down a lot since the early eons, but there are still an unknown number of big asteroids and comets out there that could smack into the planet and make the COVID-19 pandemic seem like a pleasant memory. It's not a matter of if another large asteroid hits Earth, but when . A robust space program is the only hope we have of deflecting such an object. If we're not working toward that goal, humanity already has an expiration date. NASA is currently making plans to run a spacecraft into an asteroid to test one possible method of saving Earth from such an impact.

Colonization Is the Ultimate Backup

There are currently almost 8 billion humans, which is a lot. However, we're all crammed together on this one planet. If something happened to Earth, our species could be wiped out. For example, the aforementioned asteroid impact. Colonizing other bodies in the solar system (or building our own orbiting habitats) is a way to create a "backup" of humanity that will survive no matter what happens to Earth. Maybe future humans will be Martians who will never set foot on Earth. The technology to make that possible and sustain people independently of Earth isn't going to develop itself.

Space Mining Could Save the World

As the population continues its inexorable upward climb, the strain on our natural resources continues to increase. The extraction of valuable minerals has led to a host of problems, including environmental damage and human exploitation, but there's a wealth of precious materials in space. Startups like AstroForge want to mine asteroids instead of Earth, which would mean an effectively unlimited supply of raw materials that are rare on Earth.

We Are Explorers

There are more practical reasons for space exploration, but one of the principal reasons we must continue is that we're explorers. That's why humans number in the billions -- from our earliest upright steps, we've endeavored to learn more about the world around us, and this allowed us to build a planet-spanning civilization. Exploring space is an opportunity not only to discover new worlds and build advanced technologies, but to work together toward a larger goal irrespective of nationality, race, or gender. If we stop exploring, we stop being human.

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The best films and documentaries about space exploration

The cosmos infiltrates Planet Earth's cinemas

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Our knowledge of space is both limited and constantly expanding. For decades, space exploration has been the inquisitive center of several features on the silver screen. Some have been mind-altering science fiction stories; others have been "how is this real?" documentaries. Exploring the cosmos has never been easier or more effortless. 

'2001: A Space Odyssey' (1968)

A classic of the space-movie genre, Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A Space Odyssey" has left its mark. "Audiences who came to '2001' expecting a sci-fi movie got, instead, an essay on time," said The New Yorker . The movie follows a spacecraft manned by two men and a supercomputer on its journey to Jupiter to study the origins of a lunar artifact. "2001" made history, "encompassing everything from the dawn of man, the space race, artificial intelligence, space exploration and trans-dimensional travel," said New Scientist . (Max)

'When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions' (2008)

This documentary series by the Discovery Channel chronicles the first 50 years of space travel through accounts by the people who made it happen. The series "captures the excitement and danger inherent in the quest to explore the cosmos," said Pep Talk Radio . The series uses archival footage and expert testimonies to paint a picture of the journey into space. "Indeed, you'll find yourself not wanting to leave the TV, let alone the planet," said Robert Pearlman at The Space Review . (Hulu, Philo)

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'The Martian' (2015)

When "The Martian" was released in 2015, everyone yammered about it and for good reason. The sci-fi film follows the journey of an astronaut (Matt Damon) who is stranded on Mars and his subsequent journey to return home. While exaggerated scientifically, the movie is a "bracing survivalist yarn with a reliable charm," said TimeOut . "The Martian" is a "trip that takes you into that immensity called the universe and deep into the equally vast landscape of a single consciousness," Manohla Dargis said in a review for The New York Times . "It's unambiguously on the side of science and rationalism." (Amazon Prime, Apple TV, Google Play Movies)

'Expedition Mars' (2016)

This documentary details the journey of putting the Spirit and Opportunity rovers on the surface of Mars. The film "brings all the drama to life with never-before-seen footage from the archives of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, first-person recollections by mission scientists and engineers, and vivid, realistic animation of the rovers in the actual terrain they explored on Mars," said National Geographic . The documentary shows real space-flight footage and conveys the difficulties of getting equipment and people to Mars. "Alongside the drama, Expedition Mars outlines real tech being developed for future Mars exploration, like advanced rockets, habitats and rovers," said Peptalk Radio. (Disney+)

'Interstellar' (2014)

Christopher Nolan's "Interstellar" is an epic science fiction tale following an astronaut (Matthew McConaughey) and crew through their journey across space in an attempt to find a suitable planet to relocate the people of a dying planet Earth. "Interstellar" also presents dazzling visuals. The film spans space and time and might enter the "pantheon of space movies because it answers an acute earthly need, a desire not only for adventure and novelty but also, in the end, for comfort," said A.O. Scott at The New York Times . (Amazon Prime Video)

'Cosmos: Possible Worlds' (2020)

Host Neil DeGrasse Tyson takes audiences on a "series of spiritual voyages of exploration," said National Geographic . "The show reveals previously uncharted realms, including lost worlds, worlds yet to come and the worlds that humans may one day inhabit." The series discusses the human pursuit of deep-space exploration, the potential of extraterrestrial life and "presents both the wonders that could await and the consequences of neglecting our duties to each other and the world we currently inhabit," said a review in IndieWire . "Cosmos: Possible Worlds" aims to chart the "connections between outer space and the shared history of our civilization," said Pep Talk Radio. (Google Play Movies, Tubi)

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 Devika Rao has worked as a staff writer at The Week since 2022, covering science, the environment, climate and business. She previously worked as a policy associate for a nonprofit organization advocating for environmental action from a business perspective.  

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• Published: 23 May 2024

About feasibility of SpaceX's human exploration Mars mission scenario with Starship

• Volker Maiwald 1 ,
• Mika Bauerfeind 2 ,
• Svenja Fälker 3 ,
• Bjarne Westphal 4 &
• Christian Bach 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  11804 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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After decades where human spaceflight missions have been reserved to low Earth orbit, recent years have seen mission proposals and even implemented plans, e.g. with the mission Artemis I, for returning to the lunar surface. SpaceX has published over various media (e.g., its official website, conference presentations, user manual) conceptual information for its reusable Starship to enable human exploration missions to the Martian surface by the end of the decade. The technological and human challenges associated with these plans are daunting. Such a mission at that distance would require excellent system reliability and in-situ-resource utilization on a grand scale, e.g. to produce propellant. The plans contain little details however and have not yet been reviewed concerning their feasibility. In this paper we show significant technological gaps in these plans. Based on estimates and extrapolated data, a mass model as needed to fulfill SpaceX’s plans could not be reproduced and the subsequent trajectory optimization showed that the current plans do not yield a return flight opportunity, due to a too large system mass. Furthermore, significant gaps exist in relevant technologies, e.g. power supply for the Martian surface. It is unlikely that these gaps can be closed until the end of the decade. We recommend several remedies, e.g. stronger international participation to distribute technology development and thus improve feasibility. Overall, with the limited information published by SpaceX about its system and mission scenario and extrapolation from us to fill information gaps, we were not able to find a feasible Mars mission scenario using Starship, even when assuming optimal conditions such as 100% recovery rate of crew consumables during flight.

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Introduction.

In 1952 Wernher von Braun published The Mars Project 1 , the first feasibility study and technical, non-fictional scenario for a human mission to Mars, describing how a crew of 70 people would reach Mars and stay on its surface for more than a year. The Martian Piloted Complex was a soviet study for a Mars mission, drafted by Mikhail Tikhonravov in 1956 over the course of several years. Using a spacecraft that would be assembled with 25 N1 rockets, the never successful soviet launch vehicle for lunar missions, a six-person crew would conduct a 900-day mission to Mars.

Numerous more studies for human Mars missions were conducted by different actors, national, commercial and academic over the course of the past decades. No study ever led to an actual mission. It is a truism that technologically, economically, psychologically and physiologically any other human explorative endeavor pales before a crewed mission to Mars. Life-support systems (LSS) capable of ensuring human survival for several years, do not yet exist with sufficient reliability. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU), e.g. to supply missions with fuel, water and oxygen on the Martian surface, has only been tested under lab conditions. Pro-longed stay in micro-gravity negatively affects the health of the human crew and countermeasures have to be developed.

SpaceX Starship is a spacecraft in development, which is intended to be used for the first human landing on the lunar surface in more than five decades and according to SpaceX’s owner, Elon Musk, will also be the enabler for the first human Mars mission 2 . The most recent information about a possible launch date for such a human exploration mission has been a Tweet from 2022, which mentions that his plan envisions such a human mission in 2029 2 . The last excursion beyond LEO has happened 50 years ago and the currently planned lunar missions have not yet reached an operational phase with crew. Artemis has conducted a lunar orbital mission, Gateway is currently still in development. With that status, plans for a human Mars mission, especially in that time frame warrant close inspection.

Artemis’ Orion vehicle and Gateway use similar systems, e.g. concerning life-support, partially developed from the International Space Station (ISS) 3 , forming an integrated path of different mission scenarios, lunar and Martian exploration. Gateway’s early configuration will consist of the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE), which has been contracted to Maxar, and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) 4 . Currently the launch of both modules is planned for 2025 5 . The PPE equips Gateway with a 60 kW solar array as well as an electrical propulsion system for orbit control 6 . It will also act as communication relay for communication between Moon and Earth and link Gateway with Earth 4 .

Published mission scenarios for Starship rely heavily on refueling, including on the Martian surface using ISRU to supply the fuel needed for the return flight to Earth 7 . Reliance on such technology for the return flight mandates a significant reliability to avoid stranding the crew on Mars. Setting up such an infrastructure on the Martian surface poses an own challenge, as such infrastructure exceeds anything ever transported beyond LEO. Other options, e.g. using refueling depots are not published by SpaceX. These are some challenges which have to be overcome for a successful Mars mission utilizing Starship, specifically—in addition to those previously mentioned general challenges.

Motivation, goals and approach

The prominence of Starship in current mission plans, e.g. as Human Landing System for Artemis III on the lunar surface, and its intended role within Mars mission plans warrant an analysis concerning the feasibility of such Mars missions. This goes along with establishing an understanding of mission efficiency sensitivity and effectiveness concerning parameters such as launch date. The goal of the work is a profound understanding of current gaps in the mission architecture and system design and to provide recommendations to remedy these gaps. The basic premise is to assume how a mission based on the scenario painted by SpaceX would work out and if it is plausible. This requires a compilation of statements and data about this scenario and careful analysis—where necessary with extrapolation—of this data, including e.g. trajectory calculations. Based on these a statement about the plausibility, feasibility of the mission as drawn out by SpaceX for its Starship, can be and is made.

First, data is compiled about the current mission scenario, where necessary data is extrapolated and assumptions are used to fill gaps in the data. This compiled baseline is then weighed against the requirements of the Mars mission as provided by the current scenario 7 . A mass budget is established and from that a trajectory analysis used to determine e.g. propellant needs to be covered by ISRU on the Martian surface. Subsequently, the feasibility is analyzed and discussed e.g. considering the technology readiness level of the required technologies, available payload mass or \(\Delta v\) and thus propellant mass required. The major questions to be answered are:

Is the mass information provided by SpaceX plausible?

Is the propellant mass as given by SpaceX plausible for the given mission scenario(s)?

Is the time of flight (ToF) aimed at by SpaceX plausible?

What is the energy need for ISRU activities on the Martian surface and how can it be satisfied?

Overall, gaps shall be identified and discussed, how these gaps can be closed to improve the feasibility of a Mars mission using SpaceX Starship. The feasibility of Starship is evaluated based on the numbers given in Table 1 , as published by SpaceX. More context on these numbers is given in the following sections of this work.

Paper outline

Section " Analysis method " describes the method used for the analysis of feasibility for SpaceX Starship. Subsequently, in Section " Results " the results are shown, first describing the mass budget as a basic representation of Starship for further analysis. Special emphasis is given on the trajectory analysis and ISRU. The latter is an essential part of the mission design, a key element for feasibility as it reduces the amount of fuel (and potentially other materials) to be taken along by Starship to Mars. In Section " Discussion " the results are discussed, evaluating the plausibility of the current scenario and certain key aspects, e.g. ISRU providing fuel, technology readiness (for the envisioned time frame of 2029) and adding recommendations for keeping that schedule and improving mission feasibility. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the findings of this work.

Analysis method

First, a literature review is conducted to compile available data on Starship’s system and mission design. The found information is filtered, based on recency and reliability. From this a baseline design for Starship and the mission scenario is selected, which will be used for the subsequent analysis. The mass budget is set up using the European Space Agency’s (ESA) margin philosophy for feasibility studies of science missions 13 . Specifically, this means that an overall 20% margin is assumed for the system mass—this accounts for additional, currently unforeseen elements, e.g. additional batteries, tank size changes. On component level, margins can be described with three levels:

5%—off the shelf items, i.e. items are essentially unchanged and the margin covers only additional bolts, screws and similar elements

10%—to be modified, i.e. items with heritage are used as baseline, but need changes for new functionalities or performance improvement

20%—to be developed, i.e. the estimate is quite inaccurate as the element is to be developed from scratch, even though some comparable element might exist to derive parameters from

The process is partly iterative as the data is interdependent, e.g. the amount of propellant to be generated depends on the amount of propellant needed for the transfer, which is a function of the system mass, but also e.g. launch date.

This philosophy has been picked for reasons of familiarity by the authors and due to the unprecedented nature of the proposed Mars mission. It is not reflecting the assumption that that design philosophy will be applied by SpaceX, but merely serves our own estimations.

Starship system and payload masses

To review the feasibility of Starship’s Mars mission as proposed by SpaceX, all relevant data for the spacecraft were compiled first. This data was obtained from publications by SpaceX (e.g. 7 , 14 , 15 ) or about SpaceX (e.g. 9 , 10 , 16 ) where the former were not available. In case of contradicting information, the most recent one was selected, to consider possible updates on the design. Where no information was available about Starship, data was extrapolated from existing systems, e.g. based on Orion technology. The system design also includes ISRU-technology.

Since the topic of Starship is still new and subject to recurring changes, the search was conducted purely via digital sources, including video interviews of Elon Musk, e.g. 10 , or presentations, e.g. 17 . In the search for further components and technologies for Starship, NASA and other space companies’ references were consulted for information on existing elements and those in development. In addition, further requirements have been set for the Starship that still have to be fulfilled.

Subsequently, the following steps were taken:

Definition of the subsystems,

Set-up of the respective system designs,

Estimation of mass and power budgets where possible,

Estimation of mass related to crew and consumables, assuming the best case of 100% recoverable consumables.

With this compiled system design, the mission feasibility concerning the given mission scenario has been analysed and evaluated subsequently. For the feasibility analysis the most relevant key figures have been identified, which can be addressed with the available information. Since Orion is currently the most analogue spacecraft based on its exploration mission purpose, elements, which could not be determined in mass in any other manner, were extrapolated based on mass information of Orion, as compiled in Table 2 (based on 18 ). Another option as basis for extrapolation has been Lunar Gateway. However, during preparation of this work, specified data about Gateway has been scarce and not available in the detail needed for the intended extrapolation. Furthermore, the mission purpose of Orion—designed as human exploration vehicle for missions beyond LEO, including Mars 19 (even though not with using only the capsule)—is more akin to that of Starship than the mission of Lunar Gateway which is intended to be an outpost in lunar orbit.

Trajectory analysis

For the trajectory analysis, baseline data is taken from literature to establish a mission scenario. This mission scenario is used to calculate fitting trajectories, searching for minimum Δ v mission opportunities and those with minimum Time of Flight (ToF) to find those fitting SpaceX published flight times with goals of 80 days and even 30 days 20 . All calculations were conducted with parameter values for standard parameters as given in Table 3 .

In general, the trajectory analysis of an interplanetary mission can be broken down to the problem of given departure and arrival position vectors, as well as the ToF between them. Finding the trajectory between Earth and Mars has been accomplished using a Lambert solver based on an algorithm developed by Battin and Vaughan 21 and was implemented in Matlab according to the pseudocode provided by Vallado and McClain 22 . It uses the position vectors of Earth (on departure date) and Mars (on departure date+ToF). The position vectors are modeled with the use of mean orbital elements.

Mean orbital elements are time dependent, linear functions that describe the run of the six Keplerian elements over a long time-interval. The values that describe the functions have been compiled and presented by Seidelmann 23 . The Lambert solver then returns the Δ v -values for the necessary maneuvers at Earth and Mars to connect the two planets with an elliptic transfer trajectory. This does not account for the influence of Earth’s and Mars’ gravitation on Starship, therefore the values are adapted with the use of patched conics. Since SpaceX plans to refuel the Starships in LEO, the orbital altitude must be chosen high enough to not deorbit due to the atmospheric drag. An orbital radius of 6878 km and hence an altitude of 500 km has thus been selected. In order to travel on the elliptic trajectory, Starship must leave LEO on a hyperbolic trajectory in relation to Earth. At the perigee of the hyperbola, Starship must have the velocity \({v}_{p,E}\) :

where \({v}_{\infty ,E}\) must be equal to the velocity at Earth’s heliocentric position as returned by the Lambert solver, \({\mu }_{E}\) is the gravitational parameter of Earth and \({r}_{p,E}\) is the hyperbola’s pericenter distance at Earth. Therefore, the needed Δ v- value of the boost to be performed by Starship at the transfer orbit injection (TOI) maneuver is:

During the flight to Mars, interplanetary probes in the past have conducted trajectory correction maneuvers (TCM), with the magnitude of Δ v ranging up to 33 m/s for the Pathfinder mission 24 . Considering the relatively low achieved landing accuracy of 30 km 24 , it can be assumed that Starship will need a higher Δ v C to ensure precise landing, e.g. close to installed infrastructure. We therefore estimated the total Δ v for all TCM during the flight to Mars to be 200 m/s.

When approaching Mars, Starship is travelling on a hyperbolic Keplerian orbit with respect to Mars. It is designed to remove 99% of its kinetic energy purely with aerobraking when the velocity at the perigee of the arrival hyperbola does not exceed 7.5 km/s 25 . In order to be able to use aerobraking, Lu suggests that the perigee should be at an orbital altitude of 129 km 26 . If the perigee velocity is higher, the velocity in excess must be removed by a propulsive maneuver. Therefore, the Δ v for the Mars orbit insertion (MOI) maneuver is described by the following equation for a perigee velocity larger than 7.5 km/s:

Again, \({v}_{\infty ,M}\) must be equal to the velocity at Mars’ heliocentric position as of the results by the Lambert solver. After this maneuver, Starship enters its landing phase. The required Δ v for landing is dependent on the payload mass and the graphs by SpaceX show a linear relation between payload mass and Δ v 12 . Extraction of the values from the slides gives the following empirical equation to describe the required Δ v for landing with respect to the payload mass:

Now, one can put together the four Δ v maneuvers to obtain the total required Δ v for a transfer from LEO to the Martian surface. To make the results more robust, Δ v margins according to the ESA standards 13 have been applied to the results.

As described above, the position vectors depend on the departure date and the ToF, therefore one can form tuples of these two variables and calculate the total required Δ v for a transfer to Mars for different dates and ToF. The step size for both variables was chosen to be twelve hours. If the Δ v value for a tuple is exceeding the maximum capacity, the value is set to ‘Not a Number’ in the code. Another important figure of merit for evaluating the feasibility of SpaceX’ plans is the maximum payload mass that can be brought to the Martian surface. Since most of the trajectories will not consume all of the Δ v available, the payload mass that is carried on these trajectories can be increased. Mathematically, the maximum payload mass is the mass for which the two sides of the following equations equal:

This equation cannot be solved analytically and therefore, one must increase the payload mass starting from 100 metric tons (MT) until the right side of the equation is less than 1 m/s lower than the left side. This mass value is then considered to be the maximum.

Lambert solver

In order to solve Lambert’s problem for the transfer between Earth and Mars, we implemented a Lambert solver in Matlab. As mentioned before, we used the algorithm provided by Vallado and McClain to solve the Lambert’s equation:

where \(E\) marks the eccentric anomaly of each planet, respectively, \(e\) the eccentricity of the transfer ellipse, \(a\) the semi-major axis of the transfer ellipse and \({\mu }_{S}\) the gravitational parameter of the sun. One can re-arrange this equation as shown by Prussing and Conway 27 , which allows the following formulation of Eq. ( 7 ):

As \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) are both functions dependent only on \(a\) and the two position vectors, Eq. ( 8 ) allows to directly link the desired time of flight \(\Delta t\) and the transfer trajectory. This is the general formulation of the Lambert’s equation and the basic equation the algorithm aims to solve. We implemented a Lambert solver based on the algorithm developed by Battin and Vaughan 21 and directly mirroring the pseudocode presented by Vallado and McClain 22 . In the loop-section of the code as provided by Vallado and McClain, the stopping condition is defined as: “Until x stops changing”. We decided to implement this condition in a while-loop in Matlab that stops when two consecutive values of x differ less than \({10}^{-12}\) . Inside of the loop, two continued fractions are evaluated, where we decided to use \({c}_{\eta }\) up until n  = 6 and \({c}_{U}\) up until n  = 11.

Since the code needs a quantization of the departure date as well as the time of flight, both are evaluated in steps of 24 h. For each possible combination of departure date within a launch opportunity and time of flight, the aforementioned algorithm is evaluated, and the Δv is retrieved.

Return flight

The return flight was modeled with the same approach as the flight from Earth to Mars, with respect to the Lambert solver and the patched conics. The main, and key, difference is that for the return flight, Starship needs to ascent into a Low Mars Orbit (LMO) by itself. Regarding the Δv for such a maneuver, SpaceX does not disclose any information. Therefore, we decided to collect data from different sources and studies and extrapolated values for Starship from this dataset.

We assume that Starship will ascend into a 250 km-altitude, circular orbit. This orbit around Mars has a velocity of 3430 m/s. During the ascent, Starship (or any spacecraft in general) is exposed to losses that decelerate its movement and need to be overcome by further Δv. One distinguishes between gravitational and atmospheric losses, where gravitational losses are a result of the gravitational attraction of Mars and atmospheric losses are a result of drag.

One can express the Δv to reach an LMO can be expressed as follows.

While the first part of the equation is a constant, the second part is dependent on the spacecraft.

In general, the main figure that influences losses during ascent, is the thrust-to-weight-ration (TWR) of the spacecraft. The higher the TWR is, the faster the spacecraft will ascend, leading to lower gravitational losses since the time spent being exposed to high gravitational forces is shorter. On the other hand, since it reaches higher velocities within the atmosphere, the drag is—and hence the atmospheric losses are—higher. For a lower TWR, the effects apply vice versa.

Before we evaluate the data available, it is important to know the TWR of Starship on Mars. We assume a wet mass of 1310.5 MT for the return flight, what is equivalent to a weight of 4,835,745 N on the Martian surface. The thrust of Starship is given with 1500 tf (tonne-force) by SpaceX 31 . This is equivalent to a thrust of 13,629,975 N. Therefore, the TWR of Starship is 2.819 on the Martian surface.

Detailed information is available for four design studies of a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). The numbers are presented in the Table 4 table along the subsequently derived values for the respective TWR and losses in Δ v . With these, a quadratic fit yields the following equation for the \({\Delta v}_{Losses}\) (y) depending on the TWR (x).

Therefore, the delta-v for the losses of Starship can be assumed to be 1352 m/s. This allows us to directly express the needed Δ v to reach an LMO with Eq. ( 9a ).

The landing on Earth requires around 100 m/s 25 , while the maximum allowable velocity at the periapsis of the hyperbola is 12.5 km/s. According to the previously presented equation for the flight from Earth to Mars, the total Δv for the return flight can be expressed with the following equation.

The analysis for the return flight from Mars to Earth is executed analogously as for the flight from Earth to Mars.

ISRU analysis

The initial steps of the analysis, see Sections " Starship system and payload masses " and " Trajectory analysis ", will provide the consumable mass and propellant mass that has to be recovered from Martian resources applying ISRU. Deriving the data and evaluating the feasibility for the infrastructure on the Martian surface is approached similarly to the system design, as described in Sections " Starship system and payload masses ". The following steps are undertaken:

Review of state-of-the-art systems as data basis,

Extrapolating mass and power properties for the required ISRU systems,

Extrapolating mass for the power systems on the Martian surface,

Extrapolating mass for the transportation systems on the Martian surface.

These steps assume that an adaptation of the currently available or developed systems to the needs as present in the outlined mission scenario is possible.

Evaluation of feasibility

Once all data is compiled by either literature review or calculation, the results are compared to the statements and plans of SpaceX and how they fit. This concerns e.g. mission durations fitting the time needed for ISRU-produced propellant, minimum possible flight times or mission opportunities. It is analyzed if this mission is feasible and if not, which recommendations can be made to improve feasibility.

Baseline mission scenario

The baseline scenario for the mission as intended by SpaceX is given in Fig.  1 , which is based on 7 . For our purpose we assume two uncrewed missions carrying equipment, e.g. for power generation and ISRU, will launch from Earth in 2027 and two uncrewed and two crewed Starships will travel to Mars in 2029 32 , 33 , similar to the initial concept 7 , but with a postponed time frame. Starship will launch (1) from Earth and stay in LEO (2), while the main stage returns to Earth (3) and is reused for launching a cargo version of Starship, which subsequently refuels (5) the crewed vessel. This is repeated until sufficient propellant is on board. Starship transfers to Mars (6), where it uses aerobraking in Mars’ atmosphere (7) to reduce its velocity for landing (8). During the stay, ISRU technology produces propellant (9) until Starship launches again (10) into a Mars orbit (11). A transfer orbit injection burn sends Starship on its way to Earth (12), where again aerobraking is used (13) to accomplish landing (14).

The current baseline scenario for a Mars mission using SpaceX Starship. 1 – Starship launches from Earth. 2 – It reaches LEO, waiting for refueling. 3 – the main stage returns to Earth to be equipped with a cargo version of Starship. 4 – the cargo Starship launches into LEO. 5 – the main stage returns to Earth, while the crewed Starship is refueled. This is repeated until the propellant is sufficient for a Mars mission. 6 – Transfer to Mars. 7 – Aerobraking in Mars atmosphere and 8 – Landing. 9 – During stay on Mars, ISRU is used for propellant generation. 10 – launch from Mars 11 – into a circular orbit and subsequent 12—return to Earth. 13 – Aerobraking is used for 14 – landing on Earth. [Source: Mars and Earth images: NASA, public domain, overall image: own, with information based on 7 ].

SpaceX does not provide information about e.g. orbit altitudes; therefore, we assume a 500 km (altitude) circular orbit for (2). This way, there is sufficient time for refueling, even in case of some launch failure for the subsequent launches, without risking decay of orbit into a realm where Starship can no longer stay on orbit. Also, this is above the ISS, i.e. the risk of collision is reduced. Overall, this orbit altitude has almost no effect on e.g. Δ v and therefore can be set arbitrarily. The altitude at Mars at arrival is not fixed, but determined by the maximum possible velocity at closest approach, which is 7.5 km/s according to SpaceX 7 . For the return flight, an initial orbit altitude at Mars (11) is assumed to be 200 km. The approach at Earth (13) occurs at 12.5 km/s maximum [ 12 , p. 38], but may not go below 500 km orbit altitude to avoid collision with ISS. As a baseline, the crewed version is assumed to carry 12 persons, but it will also be reviewed for the effect of carrying 100 persons [ 8 , p. 5].

For further calculations regarding the mass budget, the following nominal mission values are assumed, based on this given mission scenario. These assumptions are are: ToF of 180 d for flight to Mars and back to Earth, as well as 500 d of surface time. Actual times might differ in the trajectory analysis, but these are assumed as baseline. The ascent to Earth orbit is not regarded as refueling means that the actual mission from a budget point of view starts in LEO.

Starship mass budget

In the following, the mass budget of Starship as derived within this work is explained. It is based on existing information where available and extrapolated for the remaining values. The goal is to determine a plausible mass budget for the Starship system and subsequently compare it to the proposed values by SpaceX, resp. determine its fit for the mission scenario given by SpaceX.

Starship system mass

Starship can carry a payload mass of 100 MT into LEO 34 . A detailed mass budget for Starship itself has not been published by SpaceX. Based on public statements, SpaceX targets at a system dry mass of 100 MT, which includes all subsystems 11 . Assuming a 20% system margin according to ESA standards 13 , this means there are 83.333 MT of mass available for actual subsystems. Of these 4.167 MT are harness, when setting that mass as 5% of the system dry mass without margin, following the same standard 13 . While other numbers have been published in the past, SpaceX gives the propellant mass as 1200 MT on its website 31 . Being the most recent number, this is taken as baseline. Of these, 2% are assumed to be residuals, i.e. not available for actual maneuvers, as stated by ESA standard 13 . Therefore, 1176.47 MT of propellant are available for orbit maneuvers. A summary of these values is given in Table 5 for reference.

In the following an estimate for the subsystems is set up, based on information given by SpaceX where possible or extrapolated from other information, mostly about Orion (see following paragraphs for details), and calculations where necessary. Subsequently, a mass budget is determined and compared to the budget in Table 5 .

Protection and structure

To minimize the radiation and risk exposure of the crew on a long duration mission to Mars, different protection measures have to be included in the spacecraft. Materials protective against cosmic and solar radiation are e.g. water, polyethylene and aluminium, whereby elements with hydrogen, such as the first two, have a particularly protective effect for both types of radiation 35 . The importance of crew sleeping compartments and control centre leads to the assumption of a polyethylene cover. Furthermore, it is assumed that water pipes (e.g. for water supply and waste water transport) cover as much habitable volume as possible. To minimize the necessary mass, on-board equipment and cargo, e.g. food, are used for radiation protection as well. In the event of a solar flare, similarly to Orion 36 , cargo and food can be used for shelter. Further it was mentioned by SpaceX too that a “central … solar storm shelter 17 ” would be provided for the crew. Details were not given.

The habitable volume of the Orion capsule is 9 m 3 and the total pressurized volume is 20 m 3 37 . For Starship’s first missions with a crew of twelve, 16% reduction for elements not scaling linearly (e.g. 4 people need one toilet, 12 need not 3 toilets) are assumed, i.e. ten times the volume of Orion for larger cabins and rooms are assumed. Thus, for the model approximately 90 m 3 habitable and 200 m 3 total pressurized volume are assumed. The pressurized volume of ISS is 1005 m 3 for comparison 38 . With a usable diameter of the payload section of 8 m [ 8 , p. 2] and thus a base area of about 50 m 2 , the pressurised area is 4 m high, which corresponds to about two habitable floors. The surface area of this cylinder is consequently calculated to:

It is assumed that the area specific mass of the polyethylene layer is 20 g/cm 2 (200 kg/m 2 ) with a thickness of 0.217 m [ 39 , p. 28]. The mass of this shielding is therefore 30 MT. Note only one top side is assumed to be needed to be covered, as the lower side is covered by spacecraft systems and thus is already shielded.

Woolford & Bond report on the habitable volume necessary for human spaceflight missions, which is a function of mission duration, but reaches a plateau at about six to seven months 40 . They provide a so-called performance limit, which is needed if the crew is supposed to conduct tasks and activities, which go beyond survival and also an optimal range. For mission durations of 3 months, the optimum is about 15.5 m 3 , the performance limit is about 7 m 3 40 . For six months, the values are 20 m 3 resp. 11.3 m 3 40 . For 12 crew members, this means, the minimum volume for a 90-day mission is 84 m 3 , the optimal is 186 m 3 . For 180-day missions, which is a realistic flight time at least for some missions, see Section " Trajectory analysis ", the values are 135.6 m 3 resp. 240 m 3 . The assumed 90 m 3 of this paper thus on the lower range and from a mass budget point of view on the optimistic side. In turn, SpaceX reported previously that they expect a pressurized volume of 825 m 3 for “40 cabins 17 ”. A crew size was not given, but with 40 cabins would exceed the here assumed 12 person crew, i.e. the 825 m 3 are not regarded.

For micro-meteoroid protection, Starship, similar to the Columbus module of the ISS, is assumed to have a protective layer reinforced with Kevlar and Nextel, a so-called Stuffed Whipple Shield (SWS), which bursts incoming objects with three layers of protective material and thus prevents them from penetrating 41 .

The three layers consist of two bumper shields (BS) and the back wall (BW). Since Starship, unlike the Columbus module, will only be in space and on Mars for approximately 2.5 years, the values are oriented to those of the module but have been reduced. For example, the outer layer of the SWS should consist of a 2 mm thick Al 6061-T6 aluminium layer with an areal density of 0.6 g/cm 2 and the intermediate stuffing of two layers of Nextel 312 AF-62 with 0.2 g/cm 2 as well as eight layers of Kevlar 129 Style 812 with 0.4 g/cm 2 41 . On the outer walls of the crewed Sect. (100 m 2 , see Eq. ( 7 ), the back wall should not consist of an aluminium layer, but instead of the polyethylene layer of the radiation shielding. In this way, mass can be saved. This results in 1.2 g/cm 2 (12 kg/m 2 ) and therefore 1.2 MT for the SWS around the crewed section of Starship. For the remaining part of Starship, 3 mm thick Al 2219-T851 aluminium with 0.8 g/cm 2 is to be used as the back wall 41 . For simplification, a height of 40 m is assumed without protection of the engine area, which results in an outer skin of 1005 m 2 with the same base area of 50 m 2 according to Eq. ( 7 ). With an areal density for this protection of 2 g/cm 2 (20 kg/m 2 ), it results in a mass of 20.1 MT, adding 10% margin, this leads to 22.1 MT. Figure  2 shows the described structure of the SWS for Starship. The dimensions refer to the aluminium and not the polyethylene layer with a thickness of 0.217 m of the crewed section, as this is considerably thicker. However, the distances between the individual layers should be identical.

Stuffed Whipple Shield for Starship with two bumper shields (BS) and one back wall (BW), after 41 .

Furthermore, Starship must be designed and built in such a way that its structure can carry the payload of up to 100 MT with empty tanks, because they will be almost empty by the time it arrives on Mars. To estimate the mass of the remaining structure, the simplification is made that Starship is a 50 m high cylinder with a diameter of 9 m and thus, similarly to Eq. ( 10c ), a surface area of 1541 m 2 . Since this shape is larger than the one of Starship, additional structural elements within the fuselage are compensated for. As with the current prototypes, 3 mm thick 304L stainless steel is used for Starship’s outer skin 42 , which has a density of 8000 kg/m 3 43 . For the calculation of the outer skin, the areal density is needed, which is the density multiplied by the thickness of the material and thus amounts to 24 kg/m 2 for the stainless steel used. This results in a mass of 37 MT. With a 10% margin, e.g. for internal structure elements, the structural mass is estimated at 40.7 MT.

For the thermal protection Pica-X is used 44 . It has a density of 0.27 g/cm 3 and typically has a thickness of 6 cm in a heat shield 44 . Assuming a cylinder of 9 m diameter and 48 m height 17 , as Starship’s size (not regarding the conic nature of its upper part, due to lack of measurement data for that), this yields a surface area of 1357.2 m 2 . Covering that with 6 cm of PICA-X heat shield would mean a volume of 81.43 million cm 3 . With the given density, this would result in a mass for the thermal protection of 22 MT. Assuming not every part needs to be covered with the full 6 cm, but on average 3 cm, would result in 11 MT for the heat shield.

Environmental control and life-support system (ECLSS), accommodation and thermal protection

The life-support system, accommodation and thermal control is not provided for Starship by official sources. For Orion, a mass of 1.2 MT is given as mass for these subsystems 18 . It is assumed that these scale with the crew size, e.g. as the amount of CO 2 produced by the crew is one driver for the ECLSS and that scales with the crew size. Thus, for this calculation this leads to a mass of 3.6 MT (12-person crew, instead of 4-person crew). This is a rough estimate as certain mission parameters are different, e.g. mission duration. Since the value given in 18 is an estimate as well, no further margin is added here. The Orion ECLSS is also the basis for the ECLSS system of the Lunar Gateway’s Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) module 45 . Mera et al. 45 state that the operation of the ECLSS for longer mission durations than 30 days concern e.g. the exercise mode and removal of trace contaminants, but indicate that no substantial system change is needed for that. Indications for scaling the system to larger crews and volume are not provided in the paper, so that we remain with the conservative estimate given above.

For thermal insulation, Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI foil) is assumed, which provides additional low radiation shielding. The MLI foil encloses the entire Starship except for the engine bay and the entire crew area. The 40 m high cylinder with a surface area of 1005 m 2 already mentioned is therefore used as an assumption for the volume to be enclosed, to which the floor and ceiling of the crewed area with 50 m 2 each are added. The surface area to be covered is thus 1105 m 2 . Good insulation is to be provided by 40 layers of MLI with a surface density of 0.2 g/cm 2 (2 kg/m 2 ) 41 . The mass of the required MLI is thus 2.21 MT.

For additional protection against strong solar storms, special vests are to be available on-board Starship, which should be worn when a solar flare occurs. One such vest is the AstroRad vest, which will be tested on the Artemis missions. The mass of a vest depends on the size of the person wearing it. On average, it weighs 27 kg 46 , which corresponds to a mass of 324 kg for a crew of twelve. Furthermore, the ECLSS is to be expanded to include a radiation warning system that will warn the crew when solar storms occur and they have to seek shelter. The HERA (Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor) radiation warning system, which is used on board the Orion capsule, will be used for this purpose 36 .

Comms/avionics

For communication and avionics, a similar system as for Orion is assumed, lacking further references and information. The mission profile is similar, although not identical, therefore, the system is not scaled up. For instance, an increased crew size would not necessarily lead to an increase in communication data to be sent or commands to be handled by the system. Therefore, the value for Orion is selected, i.e. 0.6 MT 18 . Again, as this is already an estimated value, no further margin is added.

It has to be noted that the currently intended mission profiles for Orion (lunar environment) and this analysed Mars mission, differs in solar distance, which affects the link budget of the communication system. Considering Mars’ distance of about 1.5 AU and that of Earth of about 1 AU, this means maximum distance would be about 2.5 AU, i.e. resulting in a signal strength of about 1/6 (~ 1/d 2 ). This change can be compensated by directiveness of antenna, antenna size, increase in transmitter power or accepting a reduced amount of transmitted data. Especially during transfer, where no significant scientific activities are to be assumed, this change in the link budget does not warrant a larger system. In a Mars environment, communication satellites could also be used as relays for Earth communication, allowing a similar system without further losses. More detailed information about Orion’s communication system is not available, but NASA press releases explain that the current Orion communication system is intended for use beyond the lunar environment 47 .

Solar arrays, which are stowed in the engine area during launch and landing and are deployed during the flight, are responsible for the power generation during the flight. Therefore, they must not only be deployable but also retractable. Similar to the Orion capsule, the solar arrays are supposed to have a mechanism that allows them to constantly align themselves with the sun so that they can deliver full power.

Orion’s four 7 m long and 2 m wide solar arrays, each consisting of three foldable panels, provide 11.2 kW of power for a crew of four people 48 . Therefore, Starship’s solar arrays should have about ten times the power, 100 kW. In addition, the radiation intensity decreases by about half during the flight to Mars. In order for the solar arrays to deliver the required power near Mars, they need to deliver at least twice as much power near Earth. With some margin for failing solar cells, for example, an output of around 250 kW is required near the Earth. One solar panel that should be able to deliver this amount of power is the MegaFlex from Northrop Grumman, which is foldable and unfolds into a round panel by rotating 360°. The MegaFlex is a scalable system that is currently still being tested, but its smaller version—the UltraFlex—is already being used on, for example, the Cygnus spacecraft and the InSight lander on Mars 49 . So, the technology is already proven and has a flight heritage. A system consisting of two MegaFlex arrays, each with a diameter of around 24 m, should be able to deliver this power 49 , 50 . Together, the two arrays have a mass of about 2 MT 49 . To this a 5% margin is added, as the system is already developed.

As with Orion, lithium-ion batteries are to be used to store surplus energy. They have a high energy density and can power Starship in the absence of sunlight and as a back-up 51 . SpaceX could use batteries from Tesla here. It is assumed that the batteries have to provide power over a time span of 6 h in case of a power loss which results with a power of 100 kW in a required battery size of 600 kWh. The 6 h are assumed as no public figure provides information about duration of assumed emergencies. For redundancy there should be second a battery pack with the same size. With the use of the 100-kWh battery from Tesla, which has a mass of 625 kg 52 , and a factor of 1.2 for aging and recharging this results in a mass of 9 MT for the batteries in total. Here as well, a 5% margin is assumed.

The assumed total mass of the EPS, including the solar arrays and a margin of 10% for additional components (e.g. cables), is approximately 12 MT.

The propulsion system is based on 6 Raptor engines, each with a mass of 2 MT 10 . It is also using a cryogenic propellant tank, which has to house 1200 MT of propellant 31 . Super Heavy, i.e. the main stage for Starship’s ascent from Earth, has a tank for 3600 MT of propellant with a mass of 80 MT 10 . As there are no further details on the tank system, it must be assumed that the masses given already include the systems for cryogenic propellant storage. Assuming SpaceX will use the same technology for the tank in Starship, the following estimate is made.

The tank mass \({m}_{T}\) can be expressed as:

where \({S}_{T}\) is the tank’s surface, \({d}_{T}\) the tank’s wall thickness and \({\rho }_{T}\) the material density. It is assumed that the material and thus density of both tanks (Super Heavy and Starship) are identical. Furthermore, it is assumed that the inside pressure and loads (e.g. during launch) to be withheld are similar as well, i.e. the wall thickness is also assumed to be identical for both tank types. Therefore, for our calculations is true, that:

Assuming a spherical tank and using formulas for sphere volume ( \(=4/3 \cdot \pi \cdot {r}^{3}\) ) and surface ( \(=4 \cdot \pi \cdot {r}^{2}\) ), one can write for the relations between the two:

Considering the propellant mass of 1/3 in comparison to Super Heavy, the Volume of the tanks is regarded as:

where the index S denominates Starship and SH Super Heavy. From this relation one can derive that:

Using Eqs. ( 14 ) and ( 15 ), this leads to:

With Eq. ( 12 ) follows:

Using the ESA margin for to be modified components, i.e. 10% 13 , this leads to a tank mass for Starship of 20.3 MT. The Helium tanks for the cold gas reaction thrusters 10 are assumed as 5 MT, this is an estimate as a suitable reference is not available. For the reaction control system (RCS) it is assumed, that 50 RCS thrusters are used for Starship, since the smaller Space Shuttle had 44 53 . There should be two pairs of five thrusters in the front and rear on each side of the flaps, five thrusters in the front in flight direction and five thrusters in the rear against flight direction (aligned like the main thrusters). As a rough estimate for the mass of a thruster, the 220 N RCS thruster of the Orion capsule is used, which has a mass of approximately 2 kg 54 . This results in a mass of approximately 100 kg for Starship’s RCS thrusters. With the 10% margin this results in 5.5 MT for the helium tanks and 0.11 MT for the thrusters respectively. As the raptor engines are mostly developed, only a 5% margin is assumed 13 . This subsystem also requires piping, which is included in the numbers for harness (see Table 5 ).

Crew and consumables

To support a crew of 12 astronauts on their long duration trip to mars, different crew and consumable elements need to be considered. The final crew and payload mass depend highly on the number of astronauts and the time of flight. Therefore, an overview of required masses per astronaut and per astronaut-day is established and shown in Table 6 .

As no detailed information on crew and consumable masses are provided by SpaceX, the mass values for the listed elements are selected based on literature research 18 , 55 , 56 , 57 . The compared values often contain a large scale of deviations depending on the given assumptions. The selected values in Table 6 are assumed to be suitable to establish a first mass model of the described mars mission scenario but may be subject to change. The improvement of life support technologies towards a closed loop system is an important step in realizing long term interplanetary missions. As SpaceX has not yet published any detailed information about the type and quality of recovery systems, that will be used on their mission to mars, a best-case rate of 100% recovery for gases, fluids and solids is assumed to establish a reference mass.

The total consumable mass per person per day m consumables can be calculated using the given recovery factor k rec from Table 6 in formula ( 21 ).

A recovery rate of 100% means, that in theory the systems are able to use an initial payload mass required for 12 astronauts for one day and completely recover it. Therefore, the system is by calculation able to supply the crew without any additional storage or resupply for the entire mission duration. The consumable mass m consumables per person per day turns to zero.

The calculation of the crew and consumable mass on a mission with a closed loop ECLSS System can be derived using Eqs. ( 21 ) and ( 22 ) and are given in Table 7 .

While the astronaut masses and the mass of the scientific payload are relevant for the transfer trips, they can be neglected during the surface stay. Here, only the plain consumable masses are relevant to examine the necessary resupply capacities. In the given equations k safety represents the safety factor, n astronauts represents the number of astronauts, m astronaut represents the mass assumed per astronaut (200 kg according to Table 6 ), m science represents the mass of the scientific payload (100 kg according to Table 6 ), TOF represents the Time of Flight in days and m consumables represents the mass of consumables required per person per day. As m consumables turns to zero for a recovery rate of 100% the total required consumable mass is not dependent on the ToF anymore.

With the bottom up estimates as formulated in the previous sections a mass budget summary can be formulated. This is shown in Table 8 . The total on orbit mass adds to 1510.5 MT, of which 1200 MT are propellant and 100 MT payload and the 12 person crew and their consumables for an ToF of 180 d. This is assuming that 100% of consumables can be recovered by the ECLSS of Starship for the flight. Overall, the total mass on orbit is exceeding the proposed mass summary by SpaceX by more than 100 MT. This is summarized in Table 9 and input for the trajectory calculations in the following section.

The usable propellant mass is 1176.47 MT (see Section " Starship system mass ") and the specific impulse is 378 s 11 . The ratio of launch mass \({m}_{0}\) (the sum of propellant mass, system mass and payload mass) to dry mass \({m}_{d}\) (the launch mass minus the propellant available for orbit maneuvers) is:

The maximum attainable Δ v with one fully fueled Starship thus follows, using the rocket equation 27 , to:

Any trajectory requiring more Δ v than that cannot be flown by Starship during its Mars mission with the baseline Starship design as given in Section " Starship system mass ". Without the 2% of propellant left as residuals in the tanks, the mass ratio would actually be 4.865 and \({\Delta v}_{max}\) would become 5864 m/s. Imperfect propellant use leads to losses of more than 275 m/s in Δ v .

Results in nominal configuration

Due to the varying alignment of the two planets, the needed Δv is changing over the course of a 15-year cycle. In general, a transfer becomes feasible every 22 months, an event that is called launch opportunity. Such launch opportunities stay open for 45 to 160 days in the case of Starship. Each launch opportunity was examined with respect to three performance parameters:

The local minimum Δv for which a transfer becomes possible with a maximum time of flight of 180 days and a payload mass of 100 MT

The local minimum time of flight for which a transfer becomes possible without exceeding the maximum obtainable Δv value of 5588 m/s and a payload mass of 100 MT

The maximum payload mass that can be brought to the Martian surface according to Eq. ( 6 )

The first analyzed launch opportunity is the one in late 2028 and early 2029, hence the one chosen by SpaceX to have their first manned flight to Mars. We also analyzed the 2033 and 2035 launch opportunities as they show a good performance of the selected three parameters. The results for each launch opportunity are displayed using porkchop plots which show the value of \({\Delta v}_{E\to M}\) for a given tuple of departure date and time of flight. Figure  3 shows the porkchop plot for a transfer from Earth to Mars in 2028 and 2029.

Porkchop plot for an Earth-Mars-transfer in 2028 and 2029. The blue dashed line indicates the minimum ToF trajectory, the red dashed line indicates the minimum Δv (and hence maximum payload mass) trajectory. Darker areas indicate lower Δv values, bright areas indicate higher Δv values and white areas indicate impractical trajectories.

For that launch opportunity, the minimum Δv value is 5435 m/s, corresponding with a maximum payload mass that can be brought to Mars of 114.4 MT. This performance can be achieved with a transfer on 13.01.2029. The minimum possible time of flight in this launch opportunity is 177 d, possible with a transfer on 27.01.2029. In Fig.  4 , the porkchop plot for a transfer in 2033 is displayed.

Porkchop plot for an Earth-Mars-transfer in 2033. The blue dashed line indicates the minimum ToF trajectory, the red dashed line indicates the minimum Δv (and hence maximum payload mass) trajectory. Darker areas indicate lower Δv values, bright areas indicate higher Δv values and white areas indicate impractical trajectories.

For that launch opportunity, the minimum Δv value is 4820 m/s (− 11.3% compared to 2029), corresponding with a maximum payload mass that can be brought to Mars of 178.7 MT (+ 56.2% compared to 2029). Both values are the global minimum/maximum values in the observed time frame. The minimum possible time of flight in this launch opportunity is 122 d.

In Fig.  5 , the porkchop plot for a transfer in 2035 is displayed. For that launch opportunity, the minimum is Δ v 4896 m/s, corresponding with a maximum payload mass that can be brought to Mars of 170.2 MT. The minimum possible time of flight in this launch opportunity is 112 d (− 36.7% compared to 2029).

Porkchop plot for an Earth-Mars-transfer in 2035. The blue dashed line indicates the minimum ToF trajectory, the red dashed line indicates the minimum Δv (and hence maximum payload mass) trajectory. Darker areas indicate lower Δv value, bright areas indicate higher Δv values and white areas indicate impractical trajectories.

Sensitivity analysis

Since the results of the previous analysis indicate that the system mass of Starship is likely to exceed 100 MT, it is evident that this is a limiting factor on the performance of the system. The system mass influences the left-hand side of Eq. ( 6 ) and therefore the capacity of the system. As a result, the maximum payload mass decreases for higher system masses and the minimum time of flight increases. In order to model the Δv required for landing correctly, the structural mass in excess of 100 MT is modeled as additional payload mass. This allows to calculate the maximum payload mass in the same way as in the previous section. Since our analysis showed that the system mass of Starship could exceed the 100 MT as proposed by SpaceX, the following sensitivity analysis examines the advantages of a reduced system mass in terms of mission analysis. We analyzed a transfer in 2033. In Table 10 , the Δv capacities for a system mass of 175 MT and 150 MT, respectively, are displayed.

In Table 11 , the performance of Starship for the reduced system masses is shown. The performance is measured based on the maximum payload mass and the minimum time of flight. Also, the improvement of the two parameters when compared to our baseline scenario is displayed.

It is shown that a reduction of the system mass has only a small influence on the minimum time of flight, but a big impact on the maximum payload mass. These results show the large potential of Starship when reducing the system mass and explain the aims of SpaceX in terms of mission analysis.

Feasibility of return flights

According to the presented model in Section " Starship mass budget ", return flights from Mars to Earth have been analyzed. The launch opportunities for the return flights were chosen to open 500 days after the landing on Mars, according to the mission plans presented.

in previous sections. Under the assumption that no payload apart from the astronauts and consumables is returned to Earth, the maximum Δv for the return flight is 6651 m/s. It has been shown that the ascent to LMO alone consumes 4782 m/s, which are 72% of the Δv budget, including margins. Another 6% are used for the TCM, while the landing requires around 2% of the budget. This leaves only 1330 m/s, or 20%, of the maximum Δv available for the two remaining maneuvers. In order to set the boundary conditions for the return flight, a maximum time of flight must be chosen. Due to the alignment of the two planets, flight times over 300 d result in a vast increase of required Δv . Therefore, we selected 300 d as the maximum allowable time of flight for the return. Before further evaluating the return flight in this configuration, an excursion is needed: If Starship would have a system mass of 100 MT, as proposed by SpaceX, the maximum Δv would be 8711 m/s. In this configuration, the global minimum Δv for return would be 7771 m/s.

Upon comparison of these two numbers, it becomes evident that a return from Mars to Earth is beyond the capacity of Starship in the presented configuration, since the global minimum for only 100 MT of system mass is already exceeding the actual maximum Δv available by more than 1100 m/s.

In-situ resource utilization

Section " Trajectory analysis " gives an overview of the required propellant masses for different mass- and trajectory options. The results show, that Starship requires the maximum available amount of 1200 MT of propellant on the outbound as well as the inbound trip for the realization of a realistic mission scenario. Following this analysis, it becomes visible, that realizing the described mission to mars with the Starship vehicle is only possible by refilling the spacecraft during the mission.

With a mixture ratio of O/F = 3.6:1 12 940 MT of liquid oxygen and 260 MT of liquid methane need to be resupplied as propellant for the inbound trip. In addition, following the calculation in Section " Crew and consumables ", the mission requires the resupply of consumable items to support the crew during the surface stay and the inbound trip. The individual as well as total masses can be derived using Eqs. ( 25 ) and ( 26 ).

Thus, for a mission with a surface stay of 500 days and an inbound trip of 180 days, 1,263,158 MT of consumable items need to be resupplied for one Starship with a crew of 12 astronauts. In this analysis it is assumed, that two crewed Starship vehicles will return to Earth while the cargo vehicles remain on Mars.

If the amount of 2,526,316 kg is to be resupplied via cargo missions, 26 Starship cargo vehicles with the currently planned payload capacity of 100 MT are required. A reasonable alternative is the production of selected items via ISRU technologies. A detailed overview of the required resupply masses is presented in Table 12 .

State of the art

The practice ISRU is becoming quintessential for space exploration as it helps to reduce not only the payload mass and cost, but also cuts down the extra-terrestrial architecture expenditures. In the context of ISRU water and oxygen is the most sought after as it directly correlates to both direct and indirect life support. One such ISRU methodology is the application of membrane technologies for purifying water, minimise wastes and extraction of minerals and useful gases such as oxygen, methane and hydrogen 58 , 59 . Furthermore, miniature chemical reactors that uses advanced Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and microchannel technology to support the Sabatier process of extracting methane and ethylene production by partial oxidation of methane has been recently developed 60 , 61 . Another ISRU technique developed is the Methane to Aromatics on Mars (METAMARS) system that converts methane produced from carbon dioxide to low hydrogen aromatic fuels. The system comprises two fully functional oxygen-aromatic hydrocarbon production units sized to produce 1 kg of bipropellant per day 62 .

Further advancements in the ISRU facilities led to the design of scalable in-situ cryogen production facility, which facilitates the capture of high-purity cryogenic fluids, thermal isolation of cryogenically cooled stages and reverse-Brayton cycle cryocooler to liquefy and sustain hydrogen storage 63 . The most recent ISRU technology demonstration is the MOXIE (Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment) on the Perseverance rover of the 2020 Mars mission of NASA. MOXIE’s performance is driven by solid oxide electrolysis (SOXE) of carbon dioxide, to produce oxygen. It has produced oxygen seven times between landing in February 2021 and December 2021. More details on MOXIE can be found from Hecht et al. 64 , 65 .

A team of student researchers from the British Columbia University developed and tested a Sabatier Reactor prototype. This Sabatier fuel plant consists of multiple methanation catalysts to enable continuous production of methane. Details of materials and methods needed are presented by Zlindra et al. 66 . Furthermore, Baldry et al. 67 explores the possibilities of integrating several individual ISRU system into one using the power-to-x (P2X) concept. This research explores the potential of P2X in achieving key ISRU outputs such as water, oxygen, methane and other buffer gases as outlined in the NASA design reference architecture 5.0 for a Mars mission 68 . Additional, as it is imperative to improve the TRLs of the ISRU technologies, Starr et al. 69 has provided a comprehensive overview on the state-of-the-art ISRU facilities such as harvesting and freezing carbon dioxide, water extraction and electrolysis for oxygen and hydrogen production, methanation and purification.

A completely integrated propellant production system that has already been tested on Earth under Mars-like conditions is the Integrated Mars In-Situ Propellant Production System (IMISPPS) from Pioneer Astronautics 70 . It has a single reactor that produces both propellants. The system has a production rate of 1 kg/day, weighs 50 kg and requires 700 W of power 70 .

Propellant production system (PPS)

In order to produce the two propellants liquid methane (LCH 4 ) and liquid oxygen (LOX) on Mars, a propellant production plant is needed as are water and carbon dioxide to produce methane and oxygen. The water is to be extracted from ice deposits located near the landing site just below the Martian surface or from those found on the surface. A suitable landing site with such deposits must be found beforehand, as this is essential for propellant production and thus also for the return flight to Earth.

For the estimation of the propellant production system (PPS), the maximum of 1200 MT of propellant is assumed. However, since two crewed Starships are to fly back, 2400 MT are required. With a duration of 500 days on Mars and a 30-day safety buffer that the propellant should already be completely produced before the return flight, 470 days are available for production, resulting in a required production rate of 5107 kg/day.

Assuming technological progress based on the IMIPPS over the next few years, the production rate of the system is estimated at 2 kg/day with a system mass of 75 kg and an average power demand of 1 kW. Based on the required production rate and therefore multiplied by

This results in a mass of 191.5 MT and a power demand of 2.55 MW. However, additional power and additional mass will be added for the water extraction, because in the IMISPPS the hydrogen for the Sabatier process was supplied from tanks and not extracted in advance 70 . Since no exact data is available for such a system, it is estimated that the mass and power of the water extraction system is one fifth of the propellant system, so that an additional 38.3 MT and 510 kW are added, giving a total mass of 230 MT and an average power demand of 3.06 MW for the PPS. Both are added with a 10% margin as “to be modified” element, resulting in 253 MT of mass with margin and 3.37 MW of average power demand with margin.

In addition, LOX and LCH 4 tanks must be built for storage, whereby the tanks of the landed Starships are to be used for this during the first missions. Based on SpaceX’s mission plans (see Section " Baseline mission scenario "), there should already be four uncrewed Starships on Mars ready for LCH 4 and LOX storage when the first two crewed Starships arrive in 2029. Propellants can be loaded and unloaded via the ports that allow for orbital refuelling. For the transfer of propellants from the Starships converted into storage facilities to the crewed Starships that are to return to Earth, flexible transport pipes must be laid or refuellable rovers used. To prevent the pipes from becoming too long and to keep the distances as short as possible, the Starships must all land close to each other, which is possible thanks to the precise control system. The risk of damage from kicked-up dust and stones should be investigated beforehand.

Power supply system

A power supply system (PSS) is needed for propellant production, Starships, rovers, future habitats and all other activities on Mars. Nuclear reactors are to be used as the primary power source, because the use of a solar system as the main power source comes with some disadvantages such as the reduced received energy output on Mars, due to the further distance from the sun. Furthermore, the panels can also only provide power during the day which would be critical during months of dust storms. Dust also accumulates on the panels over time, which also reduces the amount of generate power. Nuclear reactors operate independently of ambient conditions.

Assuming two Starships for the first crewed mission, each requiring 100 kW of power (see Section " Starship system mass "), plus 3.37 MW for the propellant production plant and additional power for e.g. rovers, it is assumed that the PSS must provide 3.6 MW of power. A larger version of the scalable Fission Surface Power (FSP) system should be used as nuclear reactors. Two 2 MW systems, which are required for this power demand, will weigh approximately 32 MT each 71 . This results in a mass for the PSS of 64 MT (since the values used to extrapolate this mass already include margins, no further margin is added here). The stated masses of the systems already include the mass of a protective shield. Furthermore, it must be ensured that in the event of a launch failure, the reactor remains switched off and will not be activated. Since the power already include margins and have been used for scaling, no further margin is included for the mass values.

Transportation system

For transport on the Martian surface a transportation system consisting of different modular rovers is needed to transport astronauts and objects and to build infrastructure. To facilitate the construction of infrastructure, rovers are needed that can move the heavy and bulky payloads from the Starships on the Martian soil. For an estimation the mass of around 1000 kg 72 from the two Mars rovers Curiosity and Perseverance is used. Unlike these rovers, the rovers used should be powered by batteries instead of with Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (MMRTGs), as batteries have a greater availability. Without scientific instruments, but with batteries it is assumed that one rover will have a mass of 800 kg. Five such rovers are to be transported. Including additional modules that can be attached to the rovers for different tasks, a total mass of this subsystem of 10 MT is assumed. Adding a 10% margin, this leads to 11 MT.

Summary of surface systems

The total mass of the surface systems is listed in Table 13 . A total of 328 MT of mass are estimated to ensure the propellant production for the case of 1200 MT of propellant each for two Starships. No further data by SpaceX was available to the knowledge of the authors during execution of the work described in this paper. These are rough estimates. In addition, 1263 MT of consumables must be delivered or produced via ISRU.

Plausibility of mission scenario and assumptions

The following subsections discuss the different aspects of feasibility, especially concerning plausibility of the assumptions made within this work, but also of the scenario as presented by SpaceX.

Starship design

Human spaceflight missions with a long duration conducted with a vehicle and reaching beyond LEO have not been conducted yet, therefore references that are specific and fitting for comparison are not available. For instance, the Space Transportation System was limited to 14-day missions in LEO and the ISS is regularly resupplied, i.e. both are not a good analogue for extrapolating missing data. The closest fit to the operational conditions of Starship is the Orion Multipurpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV), previously the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), which has been designed for mission durations of 21 days 31 and to enable lunar and Martian missions 18 .

Data about this vehicle is scarce as well, although it has conducted two test missions by now with the Exploration Flight Test-1 in 2014 and with the recent Artemis 1. NASA has published some information about the mass budget 18 of the vehicle, which can be used as a basis to estimate the plausibility of Starship design. Orion consists of two parts, the service module and the crew module, which together form the overall spacecraft, providing all capabilities. In difference to Starship, Orion will rely on further elements for longer durations and maneuvers exceeding its inherent Δ v capability.

A scenario for a Mars mission using Orion has not yet been established, therefore, the given configurations of Orion and of Starship as assumed in this work, based on SpaceX information and scenario, are not fully compatible. Yet, being the only reference, this comparison can provide some estimate on the plausibility still. Exploration missions beyond LEO are conducted with 4 persons for lunar missions. For Mars missions, the mass and crew size are not defined yet in case of Orion.

Comparing both, Starship and Orion as assumed in this work, it can be seen that Orion’s structure mass is considerably lower than for Starship, which is mostly structure mass (61%, see Table 8 ). In our model for Starship, the Structure subsystem also includes what is labeled as “Protection” and “Other” (e.g. all hatches, inner structure, docking), i.e. the comparison has to occur with those added together, i.e. 43.82% (see Table 2 ). While the estimate for Starship is factor 1.39 larger than for Orion, one has to consider that Starship also includes structure for landing, which Orion does not. Orion does include structure for docking between Service Module and Crew Module, but Starship also needs an interface for refueling, which would add structure mass. Furthermore, Starship’s heat shielding is supposed to last for several landings, in difference to Orion, which only needs to last for a single landing. The larger ratio of the structure mass to dry mass could also mean that other mass estimates are actually too low, i.e. the mass estimates are in favor of Starship. This is especially true for the ECLSS part, which for a 100% recovery (or near that) rate would likely not be scalable with Orion-based data as done in this estimate, because Orion does not have such a recovery rate. It can be assumed that such an advanced system would result in far more mass. In fact, once more mass data would be available, a trade-off would need to be conducted to determine which option (take more consumables or advanced ECLSS) requires the least mass for the selected ToF. Other comparisons are difficult to make, as a number of systems have been modelled as an extrapolation of Orion values, lacking precise data by SpaceX.

It is however evident that in the assumed best case, manifesting in e.g. an assumed 100% recovery rate of consumables during one mission leg, the mass budget is not fitting the published SpaceX plans as summarized in Table 5 . Even in the best-case scenario assumed, the mass budget exceeds the plans by about 100 MT, which is approx. 50% of the mass given by SpaceX.

Less recovery rate would lead to far more mass required for consumables as is closer examined in section " Crew and consumables ". Aside from the non-fitting mass budget, this would severely limit the launch opportunities from a trajectory point of view.

A problem for future missions with a crew size of 100 people is the power supply. The power of 100 kW already required for Starship with a crew of twelve, or 250 kW near Earth, would have to be between 2 and 2.5 MW for such a large crew. Solar panels that could deliver such power would probably have to be 60–80 m in diameter if a pair of two 40 m panels is to produce 700 kW and with a slightly exponential power-to-size ratio 49 . Such large panels not only entail the difficulty that they have to be retractable, but also that they are relatively long, estimated at 20–30 m when folded, and have to be stowed on or in Starship. No solar arrays can be seen in current renderings of Starship, only in the very first design of the ITS (Interplanetary Transportation System). This possibly indicates that SpaceX itself is moving away from solar arrays and wants to rely on nuclear reactors such as the FSP system. One of the advantages of these is that the system does not have to be designed to be twice as powerful near Earth in order to deliver the required power near Mars. But then there would be the problem of mass, which is estimated at around 20 t for a 1 MW system (following 71 ), and the question of the compatibility of a nuclear power supply and people on board a spacecraft. Another alternative could be to rely on solar panels, but attach them after launch as an external module. This however would need to be compatible with Starship’s exhaust and thus would still need to be designed or could cause redesigns of Starship.

In the presented mass model in Table 7 , the best case with a recovery rate of 100% for all types of consumables was taken as baseline, which is beyond the current state of the art concerning life-support systems.

Available systems usually rely on the implementation of partially regenerative physical–chemical Environmental Control and Life Support Systems that are equipped with current state of the art technology. These systems are assumed to be capable to partially recycle gases with a rate of 95% and fluids with a rate of 90% while solids with a rate of 0% fully rely on resupply processes. The recovery rates for these systems are significantly lower than 100% and result in an increase of the overall consumable masses required for the mission that can be calculated according to the equations provided in Section " Crew and consumables ". The detailed figures of the applicable crew and consumable masses are depicted in Table 14 .

In case of contingencies on the outbound trip to mars, free return trajectories offer the opportunity to remain on the elliptical transfer orbit for a duration of maximum 3 years and return to Earth without the need for additional maneuvers. Especially for early crewed missions to the red planet this option serves as a relevant safety option. The increased ToF in this scenario leads to a significant increase of the required consumable masses. The crew and consumable masses required to support a crew of 12 astronauts on a contingency trajectory of 1095 days using a state-of-the-art ECLSS system with assumed recovery rates of 95% gases, 90% fluids and 0% solids are depicted in Table 15 .

It is stated by SpaceX that Starship will be able to transport 100 astronauts to the Martian surface [8, p. 5]. The increased number of astronauts again leads to a significant increase of the required crew and consumable masses. The detailed numbers for a nominal mission without free return option are depicted in Table 16 . If a free return trajectory is to be considered for a crew of 100 astronauts, the total required crew and consumable masses multiply by a factor of approximately 5 as listed in Table 17 .

While the best-case scenario with a recovery rate of 100% delivers the smallest required consumable mass, it is not considered as realistic. During early missions with launch dates in the 2020s and 2030s the use of state-of-the-art-like systems with limited recovery rates seems to be more likely. In addition, these early missions are considered to include a detailed preparation for possible contingency scenarios. Due to these assumptions the included crew and consumable mass should be considered up to ten times higher than the best-case assumption.

For long-term missions beyond the 2030s the availability of optimized systems with significantly improved recovery rates becomes more likely. In addition, technology approval and mission experience offer the chance to reduce the possibility of contingency scenarios. At the same time, long-term missions have the goal to include a larger crew. This might lead to systems that require less mass per person per day and for contingency scenarios. Due to the larger number of crew members that need to be supported, the total amount of required consumables will nevertheless remain high compared to the best-case scenario.

While a higher consumable mass could be compensated by a lower payload mass in early mission scenarios, this option is not reasonable for long-term mission scenarios as the required mass exceeds the included payload capacity of 100 MT. In order to reduce the required consumable masses for all crewed missions to mars, the development of optimized ECLSS Systems with improved recovery rates is a critical task. As the final mass model is highly dependent on the detailed mission layout, the overall mission set-up and mass model including strategies for consumable supply and contingency scenarios implemented by SpaceX is of large interest.

Trajectories, launch windows and mission sequence

Section " Trajectory analysis " presents the minimum Δv, the maximum payload mass and the minimum ToF for a given system mass in a selected launch window. While the targeted payload mass of 100 MT can be reached in every launch opportunity, the resulting ToF significantly exceeds the targets communicated by SpaceX. According to SpaceX, their target times of flight between Earth and Mars are 140 d in 2029, 90 d in 2033 and 80 d in 2035 12 , which is the lowest number they are aiming for. As it has been shown in Section " Trajectory analysis ", these ToF cannot be reproduced with our model. In fact, these target ToF are missed by over 30 days in every launch opportunity. Still, Starship has shown the capability to bring at least 100 MT of payload to the Martian surface in every launch opportunity.

Given that the targeted scenario by SpaceX seems to be unlikely to be reached according to our analysis, a realistic scenario shall be presented in the following. It seems reasonable that the most important target is to deliver 100 MT of payload to Mars with every flight. This enables the establishment of a Mars settlement, which is a goal of Elon Musk. In order to achieve this, the desired ToF by SpaceX must be increased. For the first flight in 2029, a ToF of 175 d seems reasonable with some slight improvements made until launch, for the 2033 launch opportunity, SpaceX should aim for a ToF of 120 d and for 2035, 110 d seem achievable.

If aiming to reach the lowest ToF as proposed by SpaceX of 80 d, Starship would need to be able to perform Δv maneuvers of 8672 m/s, if planning to deliver 100 MT of payload, or 8453 m/s, if planning to deliver no payload. This is well in extend of the current capabilities of Starship. At the IAC 2016, Elon Musk said that he thinks Starship will be able to reach Mars in 30 days in “the more distant future 20 ”. In order to reach this goal, Starship would need to be able to perform Δv maneuvers of 28,085 m/s, if planning to deliver 100 MT of payload, or 27,866 m/s, without any payload.

For future analysis in this regard, we only consider the case of 100 MT payload and a desired ToF of 80 d (since this is the scenario proposed by SpaceX; Case 1) and the case of 0 payload and a desired ToF of 30 d (Case 2). In order to assess the technical improvements needed to achieve these goals, we first assume that the system mass of Starship can be reduced to 100 MT, as proposed by SpaceX. This would lower the needed Δv to 8430 m/s in the first case and 27,689 m/s in the second case.

The rocket equation implies that in this scenario, one can either increase the specific impulse of the engine or the propellant mass to improve the Δv capability of Starship. Table 18 shows the required values of these parameters if the respective other remains untouched.

Looking first at case 2, it is evident that this propellant mass may not be achieved with any technology known today. Considering that Starship together with Super Heavy is already the biggest rocket ever built, the number seems unreachable, being around 150 times as high as currently. The specific impulse is also high, out of reach for any chemical rocket engine. The highest specific impulse by a chemical rocket engine is 465.5 s, the capability of the Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 engine used in the Delta III and IV rockets 73 . The impulse of 1100.8 s is more in the range of typical ion thrusters than in the range of chemical engines. But since ion thrusters require the spacecraft to travel on a low-thrust trajectory, the presented trajectory model cannot be used to evaluate this possibility.

When looking at case 1, it becomes evident that the required impulse is lower than the one of the RL10 engine. So, one may argue that this number is not out of reach. What must be considered though, is that RL10 features a LH2/LOX propulsion system. These systems usually reach higher specific impulses than LH 2 /LCH 4 systems. The propellant mass in this case marks an increase of about 50%.

In general, there are ways to theoretically reach these values and hence enable transfers in 80 and 30 days. But all these approaches discussed require a significant design change of Starship, which will turn it into a new spacecraft. Concluding it can be said that Starship in its current design does not support these plans.

The sensitivity analysis showed the potential for improving the mission analysis in terms of payload masses and times of flight for a reduced system mass. Considering that neither the propellant mass nor the specific impulse can be improved on a big scale, the system mass is the parameter which can have the greatest influence on the performance of the system. It seems reasonable for SpaceX to focus their improvements on this field.

A special attention should be given to the results presented in Section " Feasibility of return flights ", where it has been shown that Starship in the configuration presented in this paper is not capable of flying back to Earth as the required Δ v exceeds the possible Δ v . This has some important influences on the mission design:

The astronauts flying to Mars cannot return.

Starship cannot be used as a reusable spacecraft.

The mission plans by SpaceX are not feasible in their current form.

Combining the aforementioned aspects, we assess that from a mission analysis point of view, based on the by us extrapolated mission scenario and the limited available information about Starship, the mission scenario and spacecraft capabilities do not fit. Within the boundaries of our analysis it would be required to significantly lower Starship’s system mass.

Technology readiness

The radiation and micro-meteoroid protection as well as the components of the ECLSS, COMMS and TCS are technologies that have already been used on previous spacecraft and therefore have a high degree of technology readiness. The MegaFlex solar arrays of the EPS are based on the UltraFlex, which has a flight heritage and, with TRL 9, the highest possible technology readiness level (TRL). A MegaFlex array with a diameter of 9.6 m has already been tested in the course of a TRL 5 demonstration, but it has not yet been tested in space or in the size required for Starship. As the technology is available but still needs to be scaled to the required size and a mechanism for retracting the solar arrays needs to be developed, it is quite possible that this could be operational by the planned launch date of 2029.

The next new technology to be considered are Starship’s main engines, the Raptor engines. At the time of writing, they have not yet been used in space, but will be from 2023 onwards during the orbital test flights. However, they have already been used in numerous tests on Earth, so their level of technology readiness is medium (approx. 6). For the RCS thrusters, for which no more precise specifications are yet available, it can be assumed that existing thrusters or similar to these will be used here, so that the technology readiness will also be given for these. The system for orbital refuelling, however, has not yet been developed. The feasibility of such a system must be demonstrated by the launch of the first cargo Starships and successfully tested during several tests, which is considered feasible due to the need to carry out all Mars missions on the scale SpaceX is planning.

The heat shield technology also still needs to be extensively tested during re-entries and possibly adapted, depending on what the tests reveal. However, it is believed that the heat shield tiles will meet their protection and reusability requirements by the first launch in 2027, especially since SpaceX already has experience designing a heat shield for the Dragon space capsule.

That the technology to produce liquid methane and oxygen would work on Mars has already been demonstrated with the IMISPPS. However, this system has only a fraction of the propellant production rate needed to fuel two Starships. In addition, such a system without a water extraction plant requires with 2.55 MW a lot of power even with the assumptions of technological progress that have been made. Therefore, it is seen as critical that such a system is operational and flight-ready by 2029. The current technology readiness and feasibility are therefore low. As the ISRU activities shall enable return of the crew to Earth, their reliability is of upmost importance and needs to be tested and proven in advance of any mission.

The technology readiness of the Fission Surface Power System is also not yet very advanced. Technology demonstration has already taken place successfully on Earth with a smaller 1 kW reactor. The problem with the FSP, however, is the estimated time to operational capability. Systems with 10–20 kW are expected to be flight-ready in 3–5 years, the required 2 MW system only in probably ten years 71 (source from 2021). It can therefore be assumed that this technology will not be available for the planned 2029 mission.

Table 19 lists the new technologies used and their current TRL status. Not much is known about the current state of research. More funding for research on these topics will certainly help a lot for raising their current TRL.

Plausibility of ISRU

The payloads to be transported for the first Starships are the propellant production system, the power supply system, the rovers as well as the crew consumables. A system mass of 253 MT was assumed for the PPS. The total mass of the PSS, consisting of two 2 MW systems of 32 MT each, has a total mass of 64 MT. Five rovers of 800 kg each plus additional modules were estimated at 11 MT. For the consumables this scenario would lead to ca. 126 MT of consumables. According to the baseline scenario, a total of four cargo Starships and two crewed Starships with a payload capacity of 100 MT each are available until 2029 to bring the required systems to Mars. Considering the mass alone, 454 MT would have to be distributed among six Starships with a payload capacity of 600 MT. This would be feasible, but it presupposes that the volumes of the payloads can also be distributed appropriately among the Starships as the payload volumes of the Starships are limited. Thus, three cargo Starships could be used purely for the PPS and one cargo Starship purely for the PSS. The rovers could then be transported either in one of these Starships or on board one of the crewed Starships. Since the PPS should ideally remain on board the Starships after landing in order to reduce the logistical effort, but it must be divided among three Starships, the Starships must land very close to each other so that pipes for connecting the individual units are as short as possible. The consumables are to be transported as payload on board the crewed Starships.

Starting the propellant production already two years earlier would drastically reduce the required power of the system. At 1200 days, the production rate of the PPS would have to be only 2000 kg/day, with a mass of 75 MT and 1 MW of power, including the water extraction system, that is about 90 MT and 1.2 MW. However, the feasibility of this idea is difficult because the system, which is distributed over several Starships, would have to be connected by robots to form one system. In addition, the Starships would have to land practically directly on an ice deposit so that it could be used directly for production. In addition, there is the connection of the PSS with the PPS and the transport of the produced propellant into the propellant tanks of the second cargo Starship for storage. All processes would therefore have to be executed automatically by robots, whose control cannot take place in real time either. If anything should go wrong and the system cannot produce any propellant, this can only be fixed when the crew lands two years later and then the propellant production system is designed too small to produce the required amount of propellant for the return flight in the remaining time span (or the mission has to be cancelled). Of course, such a problem can also occur during a crewed mission, but a human being is better able to solve an initially unknown problem. Starting propellant production only with the arrival of the crewed Starships may therefore seem risky at first and also definitely represent a risk factor, but in the end, it is probably the safer way. Moreover, even with the extended production period, a 2 MW reactor is still needed, and its availability of ten years remains unchanged.

Long-term sustainability of missions

According to SpaceX and Elon Musk, Starship is intended to enable humanity “becoming a multi-planet species 17 ”, with long-term settlements on the Martian surface 17 . This can only be the case if mars missions are conducted sustainably. Sustainability is the result – likely never to be achieved but striven for – of sustainable development, which per definition “is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs 74 ”. Sustainable development has three dimensions, namely ecology, economy and social 75 .

Achieving sustainability or ensuring sustainable development requires more than e.g. ISRU technology to reduce the dependence on resupply from Earth. Social and ecological aspects have to be addressed, which e.g. concerning the living conditions on Mars, polluting Mars or exploiting resources. Water ice used for fuel generation, is not present for future generations (on Mars) or for a possibly existing ecosystem on Mars – up to now it has not been excluded yet, that Mars holds life of its own.

Governance on Mars, where a settlement has to be more than an outpost of a company. If humanity is to become a multiplanetary society, rules have to be established with special care of not repeating similar mistakes as before during the age of colonization, which resulted in exploitation of resources and humans. Repercussions of that are even reaching into contemporary times still.

Currently frameworks describing sustainability in the context of space missions are lacking a system view, which entails all three dimensions of sustainable development 76 and do not ensure actual sustainability is attained. Starship does likely reduce the environmental impact of spaceflight, due to its reusability, but more aspects are needed to ensure actual sustainability. This has to be addressed in the scenario’s plans in the future to be fully evaluated.

Overall feasibility

It has been shown that the currently available information and extrapolation does not lead to a feasible mission scenario as published by SpaceX. Most significantly, even assuming ISRU-technology available, a return flight cannot be achieved with Starship. While a refueling approach as for the flight towards Mars could be an option, this is considered to risky in the hostile environment for Mars, especially, considering that failure would leave the crew stranded. An approach with as little complexity as possible is needed, i.e. significant technology developments are needed.

The biggest problems that have arisen are caused by the PSS, PPS and EPS and concern the mass, their required power and their produced power, respectively, and the technology readiness. With the currently available technology for propellant production, this system requires too much power for the size it needs for production for two Starships and is also too heavy. Technological progress was already assumed in the calculation of the PPS. Should this not occur, the required power and mass would increase by 40% and 30% respectively compared to the assumed values. Distributing the PPS, PSS and rovers among the four cargo and two crewed Starships with a standard payload capacity of 100 MT should be feasible in terms of mass and also volume.

As the main problem however, the high-power requirement of the PPS of 3.37 MW is seen, which leads to heavy nuclear reactors with high power. In addition to the mass, these have the problem that their technology readiness is not yet very high, which in turn leads to high development and construction costs as well as a long-time span until flight readiness of about ten years.

Due to the lack of alternatives for the problematic systems described above, these hurdles cannot be avoided more easily with other technologies. The use of solar panels instead of nuclear reactors represents too great a risk in dust storms, and there is no way around a propellant production system, since transporting 2400 MT of propellant to Mars is also not practical and therefore not feasible. For these reasons, it is concluded that SpaceX’s expanded mission plans in the baseline scenario are not achievable and feasible at this scale and timeframe by 2027/2029.

If the time until the nuclear reactors of the PSS are actually ready for deployment is ten years, this would be deployable in 2031. This would also allow time for the development and scaling of the PPS, which in the best case can be made smaller, lighter and more power-efficient by then. If these hurdles can be overcome by then, the first Starships could be launched in the mid 2030’s. For these launch windows, a feasibility analysis must then be carried out again based on the required velocity changes, the duration of stay on Mars and thus the demands on the PPS.

Open issues

Not mentioned in this paper before is the need for elevators on Starship, which can be seen in some of SpaceX’s and NASA’s renderings. The fact that an elevator does not yet exist that has to bring astronauts and payloads to the surface of Mars even during dust storms is problematic, as this is something that has not existed before and the requirements for this system are probably very high. This is because the elevators must be able to operate even during dust storms. The moving components, which are then particularly exposed to sand, must therefore be designed in such a way that sand cannot penetrate the system anywhere and lead to malfunctions.

The issue of planetary protection should also be considered in detail in order to keep human contamination of Mars for scientific experiments as low as possible. However, this cannot be completely avoided when astronauts set foot on the surface.

Furthermore, it could be investigated if a refueling in Mars orbit scenario would enable return flights. Such a refueling in Mars orbit scenario is not part of what has been currently found in SpaceX plans. Such refueling would involve autonomous docking or remotely controlled docking with time delays of up to about 40 minutes in Mars orbit, when controlled and coordinated from Earth. Neither has been done before and thus is either a high-risk activity or has to be developed and proven further. Due to that lower readiness and due to the fact that orbital refueling at Mars is not part of the currently available Mars mission scenario, it has not been investigated within this work. Similarly, the level of autonomy of ISRU infrastructure, as well as the interaction of its parts and possesses, assumed or needed for the mission has to be investigated 57 , 77 , 78 , 79 .

SpaceX has not provided detailed mission plans, especially not concerning contingency scenarios, e.g. if a free return trajectory is to be used or some other form of redundancy concept to ensure the crew’s safety. In a similar regard, details about the assumed ECLSS system, especially concerning recovery rates should be provided.

Another open issue is, if the selected technology influences the landing site, e.g. concerning radiation, temperature, illumination, planetary weather, topography or landing Δ v .

Recommendations

It has been shown that the current plans for Starship Mars missions and their feasibility show significant gaps. For closing these gaps and improving feasibility, the following recommendations are made:

Aim for uncrewed Mars mission to improve mission reliability and heritage via testing of essential mission elements under Mars conditions

Include more (international) partners, incl. possibly political organizations (of the space sector or others) to enhance the necessary technology development in relevant fields such as ISRU, Power generation, ECLSS

The scenario analyzed in depth here has shown that a high recovery rate of consumables is relevant to reduce the mass and even with a 100% recovery at the moment, the mass is not fitting the mission requirements, therefore, developing life-support systems with a large recovery rate is mandatory to not further increase the gap between performance and actual mass

Possibly use one-way cargo versions of Starship to reduce amount of propellant that has to be created in-situ and use them as stationary elements instead of infrastructure elements, which have to be transported along with the crewed Starships, e.g. for habitation or re-using Starship’s solar panels

This paper has compiled a feasibility analysis for Starship based on a published mission scenario and extrapolation of existing systems, where information about Starship had gaps. Using typical analysis methods, a mass budget for the system and subsystems was established. A Lambert solver was applied to identify the minimum ToF and Δ v . It has been shown that there are currently several gaps in the available technology to conduct a Mars mission as sketched by SpaceX, e.g. concerning ISRU capability, power supply and the performance of Starship itself, which based on the mass estimate presented here, is incapable to conduct the mission as proposed by SpaceX. Especially, the ToF limits published by SpaceX are found to be unrealistic and cannot be held with the current design, requiring at least further improvement of the performance, some are outright physically impossible (i.e. Mars cannot be reached within 30 days with such a transfer vehicle). The current estimate does also not allow the return flight of Starship. Even with an unrealistic 100% recovery rate of consumables, the mission was not feasible for a 12 person crew per Starship, let alone for the SpaceX published 100 person crew. Further technology development is required, to supplement this launch and transfer vehicle and enable Mars missions. This is affecting Starship itself, but also infrastructure elements needed for the SpaceX proposed mission, especially those required for ISRU-based production of propellant. With the information currently available a Mars mission with Starship is not feasible.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary data file, containing the plot data used to generate the porkchop plots Figs. 3 , 4 , 5 .

Abbreviations

Crew exploration vehicle

Environment and life-support system

European Space Agency

Electrical power system

International Space Station

International transportation system

Low-Earth orbit

Low-Mars orbit

Life-support system

Mars Ascent Vehicle

Multi-layer insulation

Mars orbit insertion

Multi-purpose Crew Vehicle

Metric tons

Propellant production system

Reaction control system

Stuffed whipple shield

Trajectory correction maneuvers

Time of flight

Transfer orbit injection

Thermal protection system

Thrust to weight ratio

Semi-major axis

Material thickness

Excentric anomaly

Standard gravity acceleration

Mass specific impulse

Recovery factor

Gravitational parameter

Surface area

Radial position/radius

Material density

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Acknowledgements

The authors want to acknowledge the valuable support by Tim Dorau, by Adheena Gana Joseph on the SOTA analysis of ISRU systems as well as by Isabell Viedt and Jonathan Mädler on ISRU processes and their realization.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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Volker Maiwald

Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany

Mika Bauerfeind

Chair of Space Systems, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Svenja Fälker & Christian Bach

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Contributions

V.M. coordinated the overall work and writing, supported the system and trajectory analysis and discussion, and discussed the sustainability aspects as well as worked on the recommendations. V.M. and B.W. worked on the Starship mass budget and surface equipment mass estimate in a general sense and S.F. and C.B. calculated crew and consumables for the mass budget and the ISRU requirements in terms of production and wrote the respective subsections. M.B. conducted the trajectory analysis, including coding for the optimization and sensitivity analysis, and wrote the respective paper parts.

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Correspondence to Volker Maiwald .

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Maiwald, V., Bauerfeind, M., Fälker, S. et al. About feasibility of SpaceX's human exploration Mars mission scenario with Starship. Sci Rep 14 , 11804 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54012-0

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Call for papers - International Young Scholars Conference on Space Law 2024

Applications for abstract submissions to the Young Scholars Conference on 9 September 2024 are now open until 20 June 2024, 23:59 CEST.

The topic of the International Young Scholars Conference is "Space Exploration, Space Exploitation: Opposite directions or parallel tracks? Searching for answers at a turning point in space law" . Submissions are open exclusively to students, from undergraduate to postgraduate/doctoral level. The conference aims to to address legal issues related to the dipole of exploration vs use of outer space.

Submitted papers are expected to explore relevant directions such as, but not limited to

- The adequacy of the law in force to regulate and promote both exploration and use of outer space;

- The role of law in the sustainable and peaceful use of space - both de lege lata and de lege ferenda ;

- The integrative, instead of oppositional, approach to space exploration and use: 'commercial exploration' in relation to and implications for space law;

- Use and abuse of space: The problem of space debris;

- To the Moon and beyond: An effective legal framework for the establishment of permanent facilities on celestial bodies;

- Differentiated legal approaches for divergent uses: Are there any uses of space that are prohibited by law? What are the limits of the principle of freedom and use?

- The new face of space exploration: human and robotic spaceflight, planetary protection, search for extraterrestrial life: Do we have adequate rules?

The conference is co-organised by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Law, Department of International Studies; the Athens Public International Law Center (Athens PIL), and the European Centre of Space Law (ECSL) as part of the European Space Agency (ESA).

See also here for the full call for papers and background information for the conference.

For further information on the conference, please contact Prof. Georgios (George) Kyriakopoulos at: [email protected] and Hristina Talkova at: [email protected]

Please submit your abstracts as outlined in the call for papers to [email protected]

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Steve lightfoot developing ‘the string diaries’ tv adaptation with ‘geek girl’ producer rubyrock & sony studios, karlovy vary reveals competition lineup and jury members including christine vachon.

By Zac Ntim

International Reporter

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The Karlovy Vary Film Festival has unveiled the official selection for its upcoming 58th edition. The lineup comprises 32 films across three sections and a host of world and international premieres. Scroll down for the full list.

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All the titles in the Czech festival’s Crystal Globe competition are world premieres, while the Proxima Competition for young filmmakers and auteurs with films that defy categorization will screen ten world and three international premieres.

The jury for this year’s Crystal Globe competition will feature producer Christine Vachon , actor Geoffrey Rush, director Gábor Reisz, poet and novelist Sjón and actress Eliška Křenková.

Speaking of today’s lineup, Karel Och, artistic director of Karlovy Vary IFF, said: “15 out of 32 films featured in the official selection are debuts and we could not be more excited they are accompanied by the brand new works of renowned filmmakers of the likes of Mark Cousins, Oleh Sentsov, Noaz Deshe, Antonin Peretjatko, Beata Parkanova and Burak Cevik”

Check out the full lineup below:

Crystal Globe Competition

Ai ni ranbou / Rude to Love Director: Yukihiro Morigaki Japan, 2023, 105 min, World premiere

Banzo Director: Margarida Cardoso Portugal, France, Netherlands, 2024, 127 min, International premiere

In 1907, Alonso arrives on Prince’s Island, where he has been tasked with treating a group of workers plagued by a mysterious affliction called banzo, also known as slave nostalgia. Those affected feel an intense homesickness, fall into apathy, lose the strength to live, and eventually die. Alonso slowly discovers that it is not enough to treat the physical symptoms; he must understand the soul of those who have been uprooted. The oppressive atmosphere of the isolated tropical island forms the backdrop for a story from the dark colonial past in which humanity is put to the ultimate test. Banzo is also a reminder that there is more than one way to interpret the past, and that behind every story is a person telling the story.

Cì xīn qiè gŭ / Pierce Director: Nelicia Low Singapore, Taiwan, Poland, 2024, 109 min, World premiere

After Han is released from juvenile prison, where he served seven years for killing an opponent in a fencing match, he meets his younger brother and insists on his innocence. Jie believes him, and the torn brotherly bond begins to heal. Behind their mother’s back, Han helps Jie perfect his fencing skills so that he can qualify for the national championships. But the initially energetic clinking of sabres is slowly drowned out by silent doubts: is Han really innocent? Nelicia Low’s gripping atmospheric thriller offers a nerve-wracking duel between the ideals of brotherly love and the illusions that we project onto those close to us.

Drie dagen vis / Three Days of Fish Director: Peter Hoogendoorn Netherlands, Belgium, 2024, 85 min, World premiere

Just as he does every year, dad flies from sunny Portugal for a three-day visit to the Netherlands, the drab country of his birth. He has his usual errands to run and he visits his doctor for his annual check-up, accompanied by his eccentric grown-up son… This intimate film offers a glimpse into the relationship between two men who have grown apart yet, as they engage in seemingly mundane activities, little by little they try to find their way back to one another. Three Days of Fish, the second outing by Dutch filmmaker Peter Hoogendoorn, is a gentle drama, interlaced with the dry humour typical for the region. The director’s feature debut Between 10 and 12 premiered at the Venice IFF.

Elskling / Loveable Director: Lilja Ingolfsdottir Norway, 2024, 101 min, World premiere

While Sigmund is always away on business, Maria juggles her career with childcare and managing the home. Like many other relationships, theirs was also all about love and harmony in the early stages, however, after years of married life, the cracks started to appear. Sigmund is ultimately the one to ask for a divorce, and Maria is forced to confront her greatest fears. While ostensibly a divorce drama, this debut by writer-director Lilja Ingolfsdottir nevertheless takes us further, delivering a multilayered character study of a woman experiencing a crisis that leads her to self-knowledge. Loveable isn’t a story about the quest for true love; on the contrary, it takes a fresh approach to examine contemporary ideas of romance, equality within the relationship, and the power of womanhood.

Ema a smrtihlav / The Hungarian Dressmaker Director: Iveta Grófová Slovak Republic, Czech Republic, 2024, 129 min, World premiere

Mord / Our Lovely Pig Slaughter Director: Adam Martinec Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, 2024, 84 min, World premiere

The pig-killing fest on an old farm is a tradition Karel looks forward to every year. It’s the only chance for the whole family to get together, have a good time, engage in a squabble or two, and enjoy some great food. But this time things are different. The butcher hides the fact his cartridges are damp, grampa can’t bring himself to tell Karel, recently widowed, that this slaughter will be their last, daughter Lucie is depressed after her marital breakup, and grandson Dušík runs away while his parents argue over whether he’s old enough to watch the kill. As for Karel, the pig’s blood spilling everywhere is the last straw… Adam Martinec’s feature debut is a remarkably incisive study of the Czech temperament which, through its visceral character portrayal and searing humour, evokes the masterworks of the Czechoslovak New Wave.

Panoptikoni / Panopticon Director: George Sikharulidze Georgia, France, Italy, Romania, 2024, 95 min, World premiere

When Sandro’s father decides to devote his life to God and leaves for a monastery, the teenage introvert finds himself deprived of the fundamental certainties of life. Abandoned by his father and his mother, who is working abroad, the young man embarks on a journey of self-discovery, opening up both to a new friendship with the radical Lasha, who has ties with an ultra-right organisation, and also to the chance to explore his own sexuality. George Sikharulidze’s perceptive feature debut considers how fine the line is between the observer and the observed, and asks where contemporary post-Soviet Georgian society is heading as it hovers on the border between religious conservatism and nationalisation on the one hand, and the desire for independence and modernisation on the other.

Proslava / Celebration Director: Bruno Anković Croatia, Qatar, 2024, 86 min, World premiere

Bruno Anković’s feature film debut is set in an impoverished Croatian village between the years 1926 and 1945. The constant deprivation, repeated changes to the regime, and war pervaded the forests and shrouded the place in a miasma that obscured all visions of a

better future. Village life was also tough for Mijo: His young, innocent soul was burdened by the outside world and troubled by inhumane orders, and he then fell prey to the false sheen of right-wing ideology. This film adaptation of the successful novel of the same name by Damir Karakaš presents us with wonderful shots of the rural landscape, but it is also a testimony of commonplace brutality and demonstrates the reasons why innocent people become easy quarry for ideological crusaders.

A Sudden Glimpse to Deeper Things Director: Mark Cousins United Kingdom, 2024, 88 min, World premiere

Světýlka / Tiny Lights Director: Beata Parkanová Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, 2024, 74 min, World premiere

Amálka is six years old. She loves her cat, her parents, and her gran and grampa. It’s summertime and all the little girl could wish for is for the day to turn out just as it should. Except that things are different. Her parents have shut themselves in a room and she can hear raised voices through the door, which isn’t normal. Something’s going on and Amálka has no idea what it is. In a superbly creative direction from Beata Parkanová, Tiny Lights follows a family break-up as perceived by a child: Through the keyhole, ear pressed to the door, everything seen at adult waist height. Each day has to end, and this one has brought Amálka to the point of no return. She feels the hurt as she drifts off to sleep, but she has also grown up a little.

Xoftex Director: Noaz Deshe Germany, France, 2024, 95 min, World premiere

Xoftex is a Greek refugee camp, where Syrian and Palestinian asylum seekers anxiously wait for news of their refugee status. To pass the time between interviews with the immigration office, Nasser and his friends film satirical sketches and make preparations for a zombie horror flick. Except that the reality of the camp could be taken for a horror scenario itself. The tension between its inhabitants gains momentum and every conflict removes one more brick from the wall which divides reality from dream – or, indeed, nightmare. Fragments of real life, humour, and the unimaginable suffering of people risking their lives to escape their own country, merge into an explosive, at times, surreal spectacle which invites the viewers to immerse themselves in the story and the lives of immigrants in a way they will never have experienced before.

Proxima Competition

Bezvetrije / Windless Director: Pavel G. Vesnakov Bulgaria, Italy, 2024, 93 min, World premiere

After years away Kaloyan returns to his native Bulgaria in order to sell his late father’s flat. What at first seems like a routine task devoid of emotion gradually develops into a journey to the depths of his being, where he is confronted with distant traumas, yet he also strikes a new path towards self-discovery. While childhood is filled with sensations and the rustling wind, adulthood is a state of fragile windless and fading memories of those closest to us. Vesnakov delivers colourful existential reflections on the nature of family bonds and personal identity over the course of time. Yet he also muses on modern-day Bulgaria, where the cemeteries of its original inhabitants are being replaced by shady casinos, and where cultural memory is waning in a country deceived by an illusory vision of economic prosperity.

Cabo Negro Director: Abdellah Taïa France, Morocco, 2024, 76 min, World premiere

Clorofilla / Chlorophyll Director: Ivana Gloria Italy, 2023, 75 min, International premiere

Green-haired Maia is tired of city life and, driven by a desire to be among nature, she decides to spend the summer picking oranges. In the orchards she is greeted by the gardener, an eccentric loner called Teo, who notices that Maia isn’t like everyone else. In the same way he tends his plants, he devotes his time and energy to her, too, and the young woman starts to blossom. Their burgeoning friendship, however, is unsettled by the arrival of Teo’s father and older brother Arturo, who are planning a celebration in a neighbouring village… In her richly coloured story, which shows it’s sometimes difficult to find someone who could help us to discover our true selves, director Ivana Gloria awakens within us senses that we didn’t even know we had.

Fără suflet / The Alienated Director: Anja Kreis Germany, Moldova, France, 2024, 95 min, World premiere

Varvara, a professor of philosophy, is discussing the concept of God’s death with her students. She is visited by her sister Angelina, an eminent gynecologist who has been recalled from Moscow and sent to another city, where she is to reduce the number of abortions. Not long afterwards a girl comes to see her at the hospital, asking her to perform an abortion, claiming that she is carrying the Antichrist in her womb. After a heated dispute with a student, Varvara ponders the presence of evil in human nature, while Angelina carries out an illegal abortion on the girl and takes the embryo home with her… This mystical film by Anja Kreis is beguiling for its ominous atmosphere and raises uncomfortable questions about human conscience, morality and faith, although it declines to provide definitive answers.

Hiçbir şey yerinde değil / Nothing in Its Place Director: Burak Çevik Turkey, Germany, South Korea, 2024, 76 min, International premiere

One evening, one apartment, five leftist students, and one vision of a non-violent socialist revolution. When this gathering is interrupted by the unannounced visit of two members of a right-wing movement, things quickly spiral out of control. Turkish director Burak Çevik uses long takes and an enclosed space as a canvas onto which his ensemble cast’s strong performances paint a story reflecting the turbulent political situation in 1978 Ankara. How far are people willing to go for their political beliefs, and how much can the ideology of a group influence the behavior of an individual? Nothing in Its Place holds up a mirror to more than one revolution.

Ju wai ren / Stranger Director: Zhengfan Yang USA, China, Netherlands, Norway, France, 2024, 113 min, World premiere

The hotel room as a place where everybody is a stranger. A place that is yours for just a moment. A temporarily intimate space entered by a maid in order to clean it while, if possible, not leaving a single trace of her visit. Each part of the episodic Stranger is set in just such a place. One episode equals one shot. One shot equals one story. What they have in common is China, the home country of both guests and staff, although each of their lives differs from the others. The film’s absurd, darkly humorous, poignant, and mysterious stories are set in a seemingly confined space that nevertheless opens up new and surprising dimensions with each episode.

In her feature debut director Paula Ďurinová sets out to wander among varied rock formations in order to try and come to terms with the loss of her grandparents. Different stages of grief unfold among the sea currents, the dark caves and the volcanic wasteland, while the strings of an autoharp resonate in the ravines. Lapilli finds a unique balance between the personal and the environmental in a modernistic requiem full of perceptive observations on natural phenomena and on man himself. This is a work that excels in its inner strength and rare film language, where sea waves reflect shifting thoughts, and where the erosion of arid soil is reminiscent of a broken heart filled with memories of people who are lost to us forever.

Od marca do mája / March to May Director: Martin Pavol Repka Czech Republic, 2024, 85 min, World premiere

A family of five lives together in an old village house. While the parents are slowly aging, the children are growing up, and it is clear that they will soon go their own way. This unchanging rhythm of everyday life is disrupted by the unexpected news of the mother’s pregnancy, and the idea of a new sibling gradually affects all members of the household. March to May is an understated, intimate portrait of family togetherness, which is often expressed in the smallest of ways. An unassuming yet highly original story, filmed with the same tenderness and patience with which nature awakens every spring.

Second Chance Director: Subhadra Mahajan India, 2024, 104 min, World premiere

Desolate after experiencing a traumatic incident, Mia travels to the family’s summer retreat amid the snow-covered Himalayas in order to regain her strength. There she finds the company of the caretaker’s mother-in-law, Bimal, and her grandson, Sunny. Irrespective of their differing ages, social background and their ideas of happiness, a surprisingly strong bond develops between them, which cannot be broken, not even by the arrival of someone who drives Mia straight back into her trauma. This visually mesmerising film offers an authentic and vivid depiction of the process of coping with female pain and demonstrates that a second chance might emerge where we least expect it.

Trans Memoria Director: Victoria Verseau Sweden, France, 2024, 72 min, World premiere

“I collect. I document. I write down my memories. I’m afraid they’ll disappear.” This is how Victoria Verseau introduces her intimate documentary diary, in which she returns to Thailand and to the year 2012, when she underwent her transition. She had long awaited this moment, but then came feelings of uncertainty, amplified by the death of a close friend. The conceptual artist adopts an almost archaeological approach to the past and lays bare the process of writing a personal story that is intrinsically linked to the creation of her own identity. In this deeply felt debut she reveals the joyful aspects and also the dark recesses of transition and, bringing other testimonies into play as well, she critically examines what defines women as women.

Tropicana Director: Omer Tobi Israel, Canada, 2024, 82 min, World premiere

Vino la noche / Night Has Come Director: Paolo Tizón Peru, Spain, Mexico, 2024, 96 min, World premiere

A group of young adventurers sign up for one of the most challenging military training courses in Latin America, which will turn them into fearsome warriors entrusted with overseeing the dangerous VRAEM region, an area filled with coca plants, terrorists, and smugglers. In his absorbing look at the hermetically sealed world of the army, debut director Paolo Tizon paints a portrait of one institution while depicting individual human stories and reflecting on male identity, the potential for self-determination, and a fragile masculinity that stands in striking contrast to the brutal training. Sensitivity alongside violence, beauty alongside vulnerability.

Special Screenings

Architektura ČSSR 58–89 / Czechoslovak Architecture 58–89 Director: Jan Zajíček Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, 2024, 126 min, World premiere

Vladimír 518, uncompromising rapper, artist, stage designer and activist, is a rare phenomenon, who not only writes books, but publishes them as well. Today also a respected authority primarily on pre-1989 architecture, he has written not only a major publication on the subject, but also the story for two audiovisual works treating the same theme, which were shot by Jan Zajíček, renowned director of music videos. In addition to the recent TV series we have the eagerly anticipated feature film which, through its fascinating and impressive exploration of Czech and Slovak architecture of the latter half of the 20th century, offers exclusive insight into extraordinary buildings and unique individuals living below the Tatra Mountains.

In the Land of Brothers Director: Alireza Ghasemi, Raha Amirfazli Iran, France, Netherlands, 2024, 95 min, European premiere

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to a massive flight of Afghans to neighboring Iran, which – since they hoped to find a new home there – they called the “Land of Brothers.” But the dream of fraternal coexistence soon faded, Iranian law never accepted them as equal citizens, and so even the descendants of the first refugees still carry the burden of otherness. Alireza Ghasemi and Raha Amirfazli’s wistful, beautifully shot feature debut about a family who will never feel at home in the country where they live won over audiences immediately upon its premiere at Sundance.

Ještě nejsem, kým chci být / I’m Not Everything I Want to Be Director: Klára Tasovská Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Austria, 2024, 90 min

This year’s notional award for excellence on the domestic film front should unquestionably go to the unique documentary on the internationally renowned photographic legend Libuše Jarcovjáková, a work which enchanted just about everyone at the 2024 Berlinale. This remarkable project by Klára Tasovská and her team looks back over the past fifty years at the life of a true icon, known as the Czech Nan Goldin, and this via a fascinating montage of several thousand of her photographs and her diary entries, which she reads out herself. Portraits, self-portraits, immortalised moments, the quest for truth lying deep within nameless fellow opponents of grim Normalisation, reflections of the transformation of body and soul, black-and-white images, emotion and life in flashes of brilliant light.

What is Europe? In his highly topical personal essay, Vadim Jendreyko travels across the old continent to discover its essence in places that might be called acupuncture points of European identity. His various stops include the bottom of the Rhine, Greek docks, the European Parliament, a primeval forest in Poland, and a Sarajevo library. All of these places invite ambivalent reflections: on the one hand, they celebrate Europe’s diversity and the breadth of its cultural heritage; on the other hand, they are symbols of turbulence, conflict, and bloody history. Is Europe condemned to be stuck in a vicious circle of violence, or is there hope in those who try to sing the songs of others?

Real Director: Oleh Sentsov Ukraine, Croatia, 2024, 90 min, World premiere

Acclaimed filmmaker, activist, Sakharov Prize-winning former Kremlin prisoner, and soldier Oleh Sentsov is currently defending his homeland as a lieutenant in the Ukrainian army, which he joined in the first days of the Russian invasion in February 2022. During one assault, his infantry fighting vehicle was destroyed by enemy artillery. His attempts to organize the evacuation of part of his unit were complicated by the lack of ammunition and incessant Russian fire. The name of the operation was Real, and Sentsov’s eponymous film is a unique immersive experience that offers a hyper-documentary insight into the reality of the war through the eyes of one direct participant.

Ta druhá / The Other One Director: Marie-Magdalena Kochová Czech Republic, 2024, 85 min, World premiere

In her feature-length debut, Marie-Mag­da­le­na Kochová uses the character of eighteen-year-old Johanna to explore the phenomenon of “glass children” – children who, because they have a special-needs sibling, are neglected by their family, however unintentionally. They often feel invisible, their problems are always considered less important, and they are often expected to help take care of their disabled brother or sister. Johana is about to graduate from high school, and so she must decide whether to leave home to study, or stay and help her parents. An immensely sensitive account of the nature of sibling love which, for once, puts “the other one” first.

Tatabojs.doc Director: Marek Najbrt Czech Republic, 2024, 94 min, World premiere

“Foot Soldiers”, “Attention aux hommes”, “Dancer”, “Repetition”… These are just some of the string of hits by Prague band Tata Bojs. Always energetic, capable of myriad transformations, precise in their conceptual approach to the visual and musical interpretation of individual albums and concerts. It’s no surprise that Marek Najbrt (Champions, Protector, Polski film) decided not to go for the conventional documentary. He tells the band’s story as a playful collage, pieced together from a wealth of archive material and recordings of concerts and futuristic stage performances with the Vosto5 theatre company. Thus, unfolding before our very eyes is a portrait of a highly original band which, despite the alternative nature of its output, has earned its rightful place among the country’s top players.

Vlny / Waves Director: Jiří Mádl Czech Republic, 2024, 131 min, World premiere

Voyage au bord de la guerre / Journey to the Brink of War Director: Antonin Peretjatko France, 2024, 62 min, International premiere

Within the first month of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, more than 12.5 million people were forced to flee their homes and 5 million fled the country altogether. Documentary filmmaker Antonin Peretjatko returns to Lviv with Andrei, who has left with his family for France, to retrieve Andrei’s personal belongings and to explore his own roots, but most importantly to record eyewitness testimony from people who have remained in Ukraine. Part reportage documentary and part poetic road movie with an aesthetic style reminiscent of the early French New Wave, Journey to the Brink of War tries to share with the viewer what everyday life looks like in a war-torn country.

Zahradníkův rok / The Gardener’s Year Director: Jiří Havelka Czech Republic, 2023, 104 min, World premiere

A true story of injustice perpetrated on a peaceful gardener by a wealthy neighbor meets Karel Čapek’s eponymous literary work about a gardener’s hardships and successes over the course of a year. Director Jiří Havelka, one of the most complex artistic personalities of our time, has long proved that “alternative” and “audience-friendly” need not be mutually exclusive. His quietly moving tragicomic story about a remarkably stubborn struggle for the right to a dignified life is built on two great performances by the always outstanding Oldřich Kaiser and Dáša Vokata.

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Karlovy Vary Film Festival Lineup Includes 15 Directorial Debuts, Plus Films by Established Filmmakers

By Leo Barraclough

Leo Barraclough

International Features Editor

• Karlovy Vary Film Festival Lineup Includes 15 Directorial Debuts, Plus Films by Established Filmmakers 4 hours ago
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The 32-strong official selection of the 58th edition of Karlovy Vary Film Festival , Central and Eastern Europe’s leading cinema fete, will feature 15 directorial debuts as well as the latest works of established filmmakers such as Mark Cousins , Oleh Sentsov , Noaz Deshe, Antonin Peretjatko, Beata Parkanova and Burak Cevik.

Popular on Variety

The films in the Proxima Competition will be judged by filmmaker Mohamed Kordofani, producer Bianca Balbuena, Daniela Michel, the founding director of the Morelia Film Festival, Wouter Jansen, the founder of the sales company Square Eyes, and Adéla Komrzý, a filmmaker.

(Film descriptions, below, supplied by the festival.)

“Banzo” Director: Margarida Cardoso Portugal, France, Netherlands, international premiere In 1907, Alonso arrives on Prince’s Island, where he has been tasked with treating a group of workers plagued by a mysterious affliction called banzo, also known as slave nostalgia. Those affected feel an intense homesickness, fall into apathy, lose the strength to live, and eventually die. Alonso slowly discovers that it is not enough to treat the physical symptoms; he must understand the soul of those who have been uprooted. The oppressive atmosphere of the isolated tropical island forms the backdrop for a story from the dark colonial past in which humanity is put to the ultimate test. “Banzo” is also a reminder that there is more than one way to interpret the past, and that behind every story is a person telling the story.

“Cì xīn qiè gŭ” (Pierce) Director: Nelicia Low Singapore, Taiwan, Poland, world premiere After Han is released from juvenile prison, where he served seven years for killing an opponent in a fencing match, he meets his younger brother and insists on his innocence. Jie believes him, and the torn brotherly bond begins to heal. Behind their mother’s back, Han helps Jie perfect his fencing skills so that he can qualify for the national championships. But the initially energetic clinking of sabres is slowly drowned out by silent doubts: Is Han really innocent? Low’s gripping atmospheric thriller offers a nerve-wracking duel between the ideals of brotherly love and the illusions that we project onto those close to us.

“Drie dagen vis” (Three Days of Fish) Director: Peter Hoogendoorn Netherlands, Belgium, world premiere Just as he does every year, dad flies from sunny Portugal for a three-day visit to the Netherlands, the drab country of his birth. He has his usual errands to run, and he visits his doctor for his annual check-up, accompanied by his eccentric grown-up son… This intimate film offers a glimpse into the relationship between two men who have grown apart yet, as they engage in seemingly mundane activities, little by little they try to find their way back to one another. “Three Days of Fish,” the second outing by Dutch filmmaker Hoogendoorn, is a gentle drama, interlaced with the dry humor typical for the region. The director’s feature debut “Between 10 and 12” premiered at Venice.

“Ema a smrtihlav” (The Hungarian Dressmaker) Director: Iveta Grófová Slovak Republic, Czech Republic, world premiere It’s the 1940s. The Slovak state witnesses the rise of nationalism and it’s not an auspicious time for minorities. The turbulent social mood also impacts the widow Marika, who loses her job in an Aryanised dressmaker’s shop. Given the increasing anti-Hungarian sentiment she shuts herself away, particularly since she is harboring a little Jewish boy. Despite this she still finds herself singled out by two men: a German Nazi officer and a captain of Slovakia’s Hlinka Guard. This drama by Slovak director Grófová is an adaptation of the novella of the same name by Peter Krištúfek, which conjures up the dramatic atmosphere of wartime Slovakia. The story of a fragmented era, which forces the protagonists to confront complex dilemmas, is told not only through words, but also by way of a powerful visual language.

“Mord” (Our Lovely Pig Slaughter) Director: Adam Martinec Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, world premiere The pig-killing fest on an old farm is a tradition Karel looks forward to every year. It’s the only chance for the whole family to get together, have a good time, engage in a squabble or two, and enjoy some great food. But this time things are different. The butcher hides the fact his cartridges are damp, grandpa can’t bring himself to tell Karel, recently widowed, that this slaughter will be their last, daughter Lucie is depressed after her marital breakup, and grandson Dušík runs away while his parents argue over whether he’s old enough to watch the kill. As for Karel, the pig’s blood spilling everywhere is the last straw… Martinec’s feature debut is a remarkably incisive study of the Czech temperament which, through its visceral character portrayal and searing humor, evokes the masterworks of the Czechoslovak New Wave.

“Panoptikoni” (Panopticon) Director: George Sikharulidze Georgia, France, Italy, Romania, world premiere When Sandro’s father decides to devote his life to God and leaves for a monastery, the teenage introvert finds himself deprived of the fundamental certainties of life. Abandoned by his father and his mother, who is working abroad, the young man embarks on a journey of self-discovery, opening up both to a new friendship with the radical Lasha, who has ties with an ultra-right organization, and also to the chance to explore his own sexuality. Sikharulidze’s perceptive feature debut considers how fine the line is between the observer and the observed, and asks where contemporary post-Soviet Georgian society is heading as it hovers on the border between religious conservatism and nationalisation on the one hand, and the desire for independence and modernization on the other.

“A Sudden Glimpse to Deeper Things” Director: Mark Cousins U.K. world premiere One of the most important women in British modern art, the painter Wilhelmina Barns-Graham was a highly inspirational figure, whose work was deeply impacted by a pivotal event in her life. In May 1949, this leading representative of the modernist St. Ives group of artists climbed to the top of the Grindelwald glacier in Switzerland, an experience which was to transform the way she saw the world. She spent the rest of her life capturing its shapes and colors, indeed its very essence. In his essayistic portrait Cousins delves into complex themes of gender, climate change and creativity, while laying bare the artist’s character and vast imagination so pervasively that he creates the impression we are seeing the world through her eyes.

“Světýlka” (Tiny Lights) Director: Beata Parkanová Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, world premiere Amálka is six years old. She loves her cat, her parents, and her gran and grandpa. It’s summertime and all the little girl could wish for is for the day to turn out just as it should. Except that things are different. Her parents have shut themselves in a room and she can hear raised voices through the door, which isn’t normal. Something’s going on and Amálka has no idea what it is. In a superbly creative direction from Parkanová, “Tiny Lights” follows a family break-up as perceived by a child: Through the keyhole, ear pressed to the door, everything seen at adult waist height. Each day has to end, and this one has brought Amálka to the point of no return. She feels the hurt as she drifts off to sleep, but she has also grown up a little.

“Xoftex” Director: Noaz Deshe Germany, France, world premiere Xoftex is a Greek refugee camp, where Syrian and Palestinian asylum seekers anxiously wait for news of their refugee status. To pass the time between interviews with the immigration office, Nasser and his friends film satirical sketches and make preparations for a zombie horror flick. Except that the reality of the camp could be taken for a horror scenario itself. The tension between its inhabitants gains momentum and every conflict removes one more brick from the wall which divides reality from dream – or, indeed, nightmare. Fragments of real life, humor, and the unimaginable suffering of people risking their lives to escape their own country, merge into an explosive, at times, surreal spectacle which invites the viewers to immerse themselves in the story and the lives of immigrants in a way they will never have experienced before.

“Cabo Negro” Director: Abdellah Taïa France, Morocco, world premiere Two young people, Soundouss and Jaâfar, arrive at a luxury villa in the resort of Cabo Negro rented by Jaâfar’s lover, who is supposed to join them later. But something is wrong – he still hasn’t turned up, and they can’t reach him on his phone. Left on their own, they decide, despite their uncertain financial and personal situation, to enjoy their holiday as much as their minds and bodies will allow. On vacation, with time seemingly non-existent, they take the opportunity to reflect on their relationships back home – and on the future, which feels so distant here on the sun-drenched beach. Taïa presents a queer ode to the seemingly carefree time of youth.

“Clorofilla” (Chlorophyll) Director: Ivana Gloria Italy, international premiere Green-haired Maia is tired of city life and, driven by a desire to be among nature, she decides to spend the summer picking oranges. In the orchards she is greeted by the gardener, an eccentric loner called Teo, who notices that Maia isn’t like everyone else. In the same way he tends his plants, he devotes his time and energy to her, too, and the young woman starts to blossom. Their burgeoning friendship, however, is unsettled by the arrival of Teo’s father and older brother Arturo, who are planning a celebration in a neighboring village… In her richly colored story, which shows it’s sometimes difficult to find someone who could help us to discover our true selves, Gloria awakens within us senses that we didn’t even know we had.

“Fără suflet” (The Alienated) Director: Anja Kreis Germany, Moldova, France, world premiere Varvara, a professor of philosophy, is discussing the concept of God’s death with her students. She is visited by her sister Angelina, an eminent gynaecologist who has been recalled from Moscow and sent to another city, where she is to reduce the number of abortions. Not long afterwards a girl comes to see her at the hospital, asking her to perform an abortion, claiming that she is carrying the Antichrist in her womb. After a heated dispute with a student, Varvara ponders the presence of evil in human nature, while Angelina carries out an illegal abortion on the girl and takes the embryo home with her… This mystical film is beguiling for its ominous atmosphere and raises uncomfortable questions about human conscience, morality and faith, although it declines to provide definitive answers.

“Ju wai ren” (Stranger) Director: Zhengfan Yang U.S., China, Netherlands, Norway, France, world premiere The hotel room as a place where everybody is a stranger. A place that is yours for just a moment. A temporarily intimate space entered by a maid in order to clean it while, if possible, not leaving a single trace of her visit. Each part of the episodic “Stranger” is set in just such a place. One episode equals one shot. One shot equals one story. What they have in common is China, the home country of both guests and staff, although each of their lives differs from the others. The film’s absurd, darkly humorous, poignant and mysterious stories are set in a seemingly confined space that nevertheless opens up new and surprising dimensions with each episode.

“Lapilli” Director: Paula Ďurinová Slovak Republic, Germany, world premiere In her feature debut, Ďurinová sets out to wander among varied rock formations in order to try and come to terms with the loss of her grandparents. Different stages of grief unfold among the sea currents, the dark caves and the volcanic wasteland, while the strings of an autoharp resonate in the ravines. Lapilli finds a balance between the personal and the environmental in a modernistic requiem full of perceptive observations on natural phenomena and on man himself. This is a work that excels in its inner strength and rare film language, where sea waves reflect shifting thoughts, and where the erosion of arid soil is reminiscent of a broken heart filled with memories of people who are lost to us forever.

“Od marca do mája” (March to May) Director: Martin Pavol Repka Czech Republic, world premiere A family of five lives together in an old village house. While the parents are slowly aging, the children are growing up, and it is clear that they will soon go their own way. This unchanging rhythm of everyday life is disrupted by the unexpected news of the mother’s pregnancy, and the idea of a new sibling gradually affects all members of the household. “March to May” is an understated, intimate portrait of family togetherness, which is often expressed in the smallest of ways. An unassuming yet highly original story, filmed with the same tenderness and patience with which nature awakens every spring.

“Trans Memoria” Director: Victoria Verseau Sweden, France, world premiere “I collect. I document. I write down my memories. I’m afraid they’ll disappear.” This is how Verseau introduces her intimate documentary diary, in which she returns to Thailand and to the year 2012, when she underwent her transition. She had long awaited this moment, but then came feelings of uncertainty, amplified by the death of a close friend. The conceptual artist adopts an almost archaeological approach to the past and lays bare the process of writing a personal story that is intrinsically linked to the creation of her own identity. In this deeply felt debut she reveals the joyful aspects and also the dark recesses of transition and, bringing other testimonies into play as well, she critically examines what defines women as women.

“Tropicana” Director: Omer Tobi Israel, Canada, world premiere A lonely middle-aged woman lives her monotonous life. Every morning, she goes to her job as a supermarket cashier, and every day after work she goes straight home to look after her ailing mother and the rest of the family. Nobody, however, seems to care. Then, the mysterious murder of her boss sets off a chain of events at the end of which she can be free and find her own worth. How to describe her journey? Perhaps best as a sexual odyssey, an exploratory expedition to places where an important role is played by carnality, desire, and its gratification. “Tropicana” is a subtly enigmatic reflection on conservatism, prudery, and the false ideal of physical beauty.

“Vino la noche” (Night Has Come) Director: Paolo Tizón Peru, Spain, Mexico, world premiere A group of young adventurers sign up for one of the most challenging military training courses in Latin America, which will turn them into fearsome warriors entrusted with overseeing the dangerous VRAEM region, an area filled with coca plants, terrorists and smugglers. In his absorbing look at the hermetically sealed world of the army, debut director Tizon paints a portrait of one institution while depicting individual human stories and reflecting on male identity, the potential for self-determination, and a fragile masculinity that stands in striking contrast to the brutal training. Sensitivity alongside violence, beauty alongside vulnerability.

“In the Land of Brothers” Director: Alireza Ghasemi, Raha Amirfazli Iran, France, Netherlands, European premiere The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to a massive flight of Afghans to neighboring Iran, which – since they hoped to find a new home there – they called the “Land of Brothers.” But the dream of fraternal coexistence soon faded, Iranian law never accepted them as equal citizens, and so even the descendants of the first refugees still carry the burden of otherness. Ghasemi and Amirfazli’s wistful, beautifully shot feature debut about a family who will never feel at home in the country where they live won over audiences immediately on its premiere at Sundance.

“Ještě nejsem, kým chci být” (I’m Not Everything I Want to Be) Director: Klára Tasovská Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Austria This year’s notional award for excellence on the domestic film front should go to this documentary on the internationally renowned photographer Libuše Jarcovjáková, a work which enchanted many at the Berlinale. This project looks back over the past 50 years at the life of a true icon, known as the Czech Nan Goldin, and this via a montage of several thousand of her photographs and her diary entries, which she reads out herself. Portraits, self-portraits, immortalized moments, the quest for truth lying deep within nameless fellow opponents of grim Normalisation, reflections of the transformation of body and soul, black-and-white images, emotion and life in flashes of brilliant light.

“Das Lied der Anderen – Eine Suche nach Europa” (The Song of Others – A Search for Europe) Director: Vadim Jendreyko Switzerland, international premiere What is Europe? In his topical personal essay, Jendreyko travels across the old continent to discover its essence in places that might be called acupuncture points of European identity. His various stops include the bottom of the Rhine, Greek docks, the European Parliament, a primeval forest in Poland, and a Sarajevo library. All of these places invite ambivalent reflections: on the one hand, they celebrate Europe’s diversity and the breadth of its cultural heritage; on the other hand, they are symbols of turbulence, conflict and bloody history. Is Europe condemned to be stuck in a vicious circle of violence, or is there hope in those who try to sing the songs of others?

“Ta druhá” (The Other One) Director: Marie-Magdalena Kochová Czech Republic, world premiere In her feature-length debut, Kochová uses the character of 18-year-old Johanna to explore the phenomenon of “glass children” – children who, because they have a special-needs sibling, are neglected by their family, however unintentionally. They often feel invisible, their problems are always considered less important, and they are often expected to help take care of their disabled brother or sister. Johana is about to graduate from high school, and so she must decide whether to leave home to study, or stay and help her parents. An immensely sensitive account of the nature of sibling love which, for once, puts “the other one” first.

“Tatabojs.doc” Director: Marek Najbrt Czech Republic, world premiere “Foot Soldiers,” “Attention aux hommes,” “Dancer,” “Repetition”… These are just some of the string of hits by Prague band Tata Bojs. Always energetic, capable of myriad transformations, precise in their conceptual approach to the visual and musical interpretation of individual albums and concerts. It’s no surprise that Najbrt decided not to go for the conventional documentary. He tells the band’s story as a playful collage, pieced together from a wealth of archive material and recordings of concerts and futuristic stage performances with the Vosto5 theater company. Thus, unfolding before our very eyes is a portrait of a highly original band which, despite the alternative nature of its output, has earned its rightful place among the country’s top players.

“Vlny” (Waves) Director: Jiří Mádl Czech Republic, world premiere One might think that Czech and Slovak filmmakers have already said all there is to say about the period around 1968 in Czechoslovak history. As Mádl’s latest outing shows, however, this crucial era in our modern history still has forgotten stories to offer that are worthy of our attention. The film revolves around the international news office at Czechoslovak Radio, a place full of talented individuals possessing broad insight, linguistic skills, and above all a commitment to honest journalistic work with a focus on the truth. An epic, dynamically shot, rewarding film, which embraces uncommon heroism in the face of an oppressive regime, the strength of fraternal ties, and the eternal themes of love, betrayal, morality, and hope.

“Zahradníkův rok” (The Gardener’s Year) Director: Jiří Havelka Czech Republic, world premiere A true story of injustice perpetrated on a peaceful gardener by a wealthy neighbor meets Karel Čapek’s eponymous literary work about a gardener’s hardships and successes over the course of a year. Havelka, one of the most complex artistic personalities of our time, has long proved that “alternative” and “audience-friendly” need not be mutually exclusive. His quietly moving tragicomic story about a remarkably stubborn struggle for the right to a dignified life is built on two great performances by the always outstanding Oldřich Kaiser and Dáša Vokata.

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