forensic science literature review topics

299+ Forensic Science Research Topics (Updated 2024)

Welcome to the world of Forensic Science Research Topics. Get ready to dive into a treasure of fascinating ideas that crack the mysteries behind crime-solving techniques. This year’s collection spans 15 stunning categories, each including 20 engaging topics.

From DNA Analysis uncovering secrets in genes to Ballistics & Firearms exploring the science behind bullets, these categories open doors to understanding how science solves puzzling cases. Cyber Forensics delves into the digital world of crime, while Forensic Anthropology examines the stories hidden within skeletal remains.

Explore Toxicology & Drug Analysis, diving into the science of poisons and medications, or journey into Wildlife Forensics, where nature meets investigation. Uncover the secrets of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis or delve into the linguistic clues in Forensic Linguistics.

Join us as we uncover the mysteries, piece by piece, and go on a thrilling journey into the captivating realm of Forensic Science Research for the year 2024.

Top 5 Applications of Forensic Science

Table of Contents

Forensic science stands as a crucial pillar in solving mysteries within the kingdoms of crime and justice. It includes various scientific disciplines applied to legal matters, providing key insights that aid investigations and legal proceedings. This multidisciplinary field plays a crucial role in solving crimes, identifying culprits, and bringing closure to victims’ families. Here are the top 5 applications of Forensic Science:

• Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) : Forensic science’s foundation involves detailed examination of crime scenes. It encompasses evidence collection, analysis of fingerprints, bloodstains, fibers, and other trace evidence. This critical process helps reconstruct the sequence of events leading to a crime.
• DNA Analysis : The advancement in DNA technology has revolutionized forensic science. DNA analysis helps identify individuals, link suspects to crime scenes, and exonerate innocent parties. It’s a powerful tool in criminal investigations and solving cold cases.
• Toxicology & Drug Analysis : Forensic toxicology focuses on detecting drugs, poisons, or toxins in the body. It’s instrumental in determining causes of death or establishing impairment due to substances.
• Ballistics & Firearms Analysis : This branch involves studying firearms, bullets, and cartridge cases. It assists in linking weapons to crimes, identifying shooting distances, and determining trajectories.
• Digital Evidence Examination : In the digital age, forensic science extends into cyberspace. Experts analyze digital devices and data to recover, interpret, and present evidence pertinent to cybercrimes.

These five applications showcase how forensic science’s diverse toolkit and methodologies are instrumental in solving crimes, offering justice, and ensuring a safer society.

Top 299+ Forensic Science Research Topics

Now, join us in exploring these thought-provoking themes and be part of the thrilling journey where every clue leads to a new revelation in the field of forensic research. Let us start.

Top 20 Research Topics For DNA Analysis

• Advances in Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies
• Application of DNA Phenotyping in Criminal Investigations
• Forensic Use of Microbial DNA Analysis
• Ethical Implications of DNA Data Sharing
• Rapid DNA Testing in Law Enforcement
• Epigenetics and Its Role in DNA Analysis
• DNA Methylation as an Age Estimation Tool
• Familial DNA Searching in Cold Cases
• Forensic Application of CRISPR Technology
• Mitochondrial DNA Analysis in Identification
• DNA Barcoding for Species Identification
• DNA Preservation Techniques in Forensics
• Y-Chromosome Analysis for Lineage Tracing
• Population Genetics and DNA Variation Studies
• Role of Artificial Intelligence in DNA Analysis
• DNA Damage and Repair Mechanisms
• Forensic Genealogy and Genetic Genealogy
• Environmental DNA (eDNA) Analysis in Forensics
• Forensic Interpretation of DNA Markers
• Comparative Genomics in Forensic DNA Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Cyber Forensics

• Cybercrime Investigation Techniques
• Network Traffic Analysis in Digital Forensics
• Malware Analysis and Forensic Examination
• Internet of Things (IoT) Forensics
• Cloud Forensics and Data Recovery
• Cyber Threat Intelligence Analysis
• Incident Response and Readiness in Cyber Forensic
• Social Media Forensic Analysis
• Steganography Detection and Analysis
• Cryptocurrency Forensics
• Mobile Device Forensics
• Digital Evidence Collection and Preservation
• Network Intrusion Detection and Analysis
• Email Header and Content Examination
• Cyber Forensics in Financial Crimes
• Digital Forensic Challenges in Cloud Computing
• Live Data Acquisition and Analysis
• IoT Device Security and Forensics
• Cyber Forensics in Industrial Control Systems
• Anti-Forensic Techniques and Countermeasures

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Anthropology

• Skeletal Trauma Analysis in Forensics
• Age Estimation Methods from Skeletal Remains
• Forensic Facial Reconstruction Techniques
• Skeletal Identification Procedures
• Forensic Taphonomy Studies
• Bone Histology in Forensic Investigations
• Forensic Anthropology in Mass Disasters
• Skeletal Analysis for Ancestry Determination
• Skeletal Pathology and Disease Identification
• Entomology in Forensic Anthropology
• Postmortem Interval Estimation from Skeletal Markers
• Burned and Fragmentary Remains Analysis
• Forensic Anthropology in Child Abuse Cases
• Human Rights and Forensic Anthropology
• Forensic Facial Approximation Methods
• Bioarchaeology and Cultural Forensic Anthropology
• Skeletal Stature and Body Mass Estimation
• Forensic Anthropology in War Crimes Investigations
• Skeletal DNA Analysis in Identification
• Skeletal Patterning in Trauma Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Ballistics & Firearms

• Firearm Examination and Toolmark Analysis
• Gunshot Residue Analysis Techniques
• Bullet Trajectory Reconstruction Methods
• Forensic Ballistics in Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Firearms Identification Procedures
• Terminal Ballistics and Wound Analysis
• Cartridge Case Examination and Comparison
• Striation Analysis in Bullet and Barrel Matching
• Bullet Penetration and Damage Studies
• Firearm Serial Number Restoration Techniques
• Gunshot Acoustics and Audio Forensics
• Firearm Modification Analysis
• Forensic Analysis of Ammunition Types
• Forensic Ballistics in Shooting Incident Reconstructions
• Shotgun Pattern Analysis Methods
• Bullet Fragment Analysis Techniques
• Distance Determination in Shooting Cases
• Trajectory Analysis in Vehicle-Involved Shootings
• Gunshot Residue Collection and Analysis Methods
• Ballistics and Firearms in Expert Testimony

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Digital Evidence Examination

• Data Recovery and Reconstruction Techniques
• File System Forensics
• Mobile App Forensic Analysis
• Internet History and Browsing Analysis
• Cloud Storage Forensics
• Metadata Analysis in Digital Evidence
• Deleted File Recovery and Interpretation
• Social Media Forensics
• IoT Device Forensic Analysis
• Network Packet Capture and Analysis
• Timestamp Analysis in Digital Evidence
• Malware Analysis and Behavior Examination
• Database Forensics
• GPS and Geolocation Data Forensics
• Steganalysis and Hidden Data Detection
• Memory Forensics and RAM Analysis
• Artifact Extraction from Operating Systems
• Wearable Technology Forensic Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Toxicology & Drug Analysis

• Emerging Drug Trends and Novel Psychoactive Substances
• Forensic Analysis of Opioids and Overdose Deaths
• Designer Drugs Identification and Analysis
• Postmortem Toxicology in Fatalities
• Drug-Facilitated Crimes Analysis
• Workplace Drug Testing Methods
• Forensic Toxicology in Sports Doping
• Analytical Techniques in Drug Detection
• Toxicology of Prescription Medications
• Herbal and Natural Product Toxicology
• Hair Analysis in Drug Detection
• Forensic Toxicology and Environmental Exposure
• Toxicological Analysis in Poisoning Cases
• Analytical Chemistry in Toxicological Studies
• Alcohol Biomarkers and Analysis
• Forensic Toxicology and Forensic Pathology Collaboration
• Forensic Toxicology in Criminal Investigations
• Forensic Toxicology and Age Estimation
• Driving Under the Influence (DUI) Cases
• Forensic Toxicology and Public Health Impact

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Wildlife Forensics

• Illegal Wildlife Trade Analysis
• DNA Forensics in Wildlife Crime Investigations
• Forensic Identification of Endangered Species
• Wildlife Product Trafficking Investigations
• Forensic Analysis of Poaching Incidents
• Species Identification using Forensic Techniques
• Forensic Entomology in Wildlife Crime Scenes
• Forensic Anthropology in Wildlife Investigations
• Timber Trafficking Forensics
• Wildlife Forensics and Conservation Genetics
• Forensic Odontology in Wildlife Crime Cases
• Trace Evidence Analysis in Wildlife Crime
• Forensic Ballistics in Wildlife Poaching
• Forensic Examination of Fishing and Hunting Gear
• Forensic Imaging and Photography in Wildlife Forensics
• Wildlife DNA Database Development
• Forensic Botany and Plant DNA in Wildlife Investigations
• Forensic Veterinary Pathology in Wildlife Cases
• Wildlife Forensics and International Law Enforcement
• Wildlife Trafficking Routes Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Accounting

• Financial Statement Fraud Examination
• Money Laundering Investigations
• Forensic Analysis of Corporate Fraud
• Forensic Audit Techniques
• Asset Misappropriation Investigations
• Tax Evasion and Fraud Analysis
• Digital Forensics in Financial Investigations
• Investigative Accounting in Bankruptcy Cases
• Forensic Accounting in Divorce Proceedings
• Forensic Accounting in Insurance Claims
• Fraudulent Financial Reporting Analysis
• Bribery and Corruption Investigations
• Forensic Accounting in Nonprofit Organizations
• Business Valuation in Forensic Accounting
• Forensic Accounting and Economic Damages Calculation
• Investigating Embezzlement Cases
• Forensic Accounting in Government Agencies
• Forensic Accounting in Investment Fraud
• Forensic Accounting Ethics and Standards
• Forensic Accounting in Risk Management

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

• Impact Angle Determination in Bloodstain Analysis
• Bloodstain Pattern Classification Methods
• Spatter vs. Transfer Bloodstain Analysis
• Low-Velocity Bloodstain Patterns
• High-Velocity Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
• Area of Convergence and Area of Origin Calculation
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Shooting Incidents
• Void Patterns in Bloodstain Analysis
• Cast-off Bloodstain Analysis
• Saturation and Dilution Analysis in Bloodstains
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Assault Cases
• Swiping and Wiping Bloodstain Patterns
• Bloodstain Pattern Documentation Techniques
• Altered Bloodstain Patterns and Their Analysis
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis and Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis on Textiles and Fabrics
• Spine and Travel Analysis in Bloodstain Patterns
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Homicide Investigations
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Accidental Injuries
• Impact Spatter Analysis in Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Pathology

• Postmortem Interval Estimation Methods
• Cause of Death Determination Techniques
• Forensic Autopsy Procedures
• Blunt Force Trauma Analysis
• Sharp Force Injuries Examination
• Gunshot Wound Examination in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Toxicology in Autopsy Analysis
• Thermal Injury and Burns Examination
• Asphyxiation and Suffocation Investigations
• Decompositional Changes in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Pathology and Child Abuse Cases
• Forensic Anthropology in Autopsy Investigations
• Electrical and Lightning Injury Analysis
• Drowning and Water-related Deaths in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Pathology and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
• Forensic Pathology in Traumatic Brain Injury Cases
• Forensic Pathology in Mass Fatality Incidents
• Forensic Pathology and Forensic Odontology Collaboration
• Forensic Pathology and Infectious Disease Investigations
• Forensic Pathology and Forensic Psychiatry Interface

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Forensic Odontology

• Bite Mark Analysis and Interpretation
• Dental Identification Techniques
• Forensic Radiography in Odontology
• Age Estimation from Dental Development
• Forensic Odontology in Mass Disasters
• Human Identification using Dental Records
• Bite Mark Analysis in Criminal Investigations
• Dental Impressions and Evidence Collection
• Bite Mark Comparison Methods
• Forensic Odontology in Child Abuse Cases
• Dental Evidence in Bite Injury Cases
• Forensic Bite Mark Photography Techniques
• Dental Morphology and Identification
• Forensic Odontology and Patterned Injury Analysis
• Dental Forensics and Bite Mark Validation
• Dental DNA Analysis in Forensic Odontology
• Bite Mark Analysis in Sexual Assault Cases
• Forensic Odontology in Age Estimation
• Dental Prosthetics in Forensic Identification
• Bite Mark Analysis and Courtroom Testimony

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Linguistics

• Authorship Identification in Textual Analysis
• Forensic Stylistics and Writing Analysis
• Threat Assessment and Textual Analysis
• Linguistic Profiling in Criminal Investigations
• Voice Identification and Speaker Profiling
• Deception Detection through Linguistic Analysis
• Forensic Discourse Analysis
• Linguistic Analysis of Suicide Notes
• Comparative Text Analysis in Forensic Linguistics
• Linguistic Analysis of Ransom Notes
• Forensic Phonetics and Speaker Identification
• Linguistic Forensics in Threatening Communication
• Language Analysis in Hate Speech Investigations
• Forensic Linguistics in Cyberbullying Cases
• Verbal Lie Detection Techniques
• Forensic Linguistics and Anonymous Communication
• Language Variation Analysis in Legal Contexts
• Linguistic Profiling in Extortion Cases
• Forensic Linguistics in Profanity Analysis
• Linguistic Analysis of Recorded Conversations

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Forensic Entomology

• Postmortem Interval Estimation using Insects
• Forensic Use of Blow Flies in Investigations
• Insect Succession Patterns on Decomposing Bodies
• Maggot Mass Temperature and Development Analysis
• Forensic Entomotoxicology (Insects and Toxins)
• Insect Colonization on Buried Remains
• Diptera Identification in Forensic Contexts
• Insect Artifacts on Human Remains
• Forensic Acarology (Mites and Forensics)
• Forensic Entomology in Cold Climate Regions
• Insect Arrival Time and Death Scene Analysis
• Decomposition Studies on Different Environments
• Seasonal Variation in Insect Colonization
• Insect Evidence in Wildlife Forensics
• Forensic Entomology and Crime Scene Investigation
• Insect Pupation and Life Cycle Analysis
• Forensic Use of Beetles and Other Insects
• Forensic Entomology and Postmortem Changes
• Insect Species Diversity on Decomposing Remains
• Insect Evidence Preservation and Collection Techniques

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Botany

• Pollen Analysis in Forensic Investigations
• Vegetation Succession on Decomposing Remains
• Forensic Palynology and Crime Scene Analysis
• Plant DNA Profiling in Forensic Botany
• Phytolith Analysis in Soil Forensics
• Botanical Traces and Environmental Significance
• Forensic Use of Algal Evidence
• Plant Tissue Analysis in Death Investigations
• Forensic Seed Identification and Analysis
• Plant-based Toxin Detection in Poisoning Cases
• Botanical Evidence in Wildlife Crime Investigations
• Forensic Plant Anatomy and Morphology
• Plant Ecology as Evidence in Legal Cases
• Forensic Phytogeography and Geolocation
• Plant Trace Evidence on Clothing and Tools
• Forensic Herbal Medicine Analysis
• Dendrochronology in Forensic Botany
• Forensic Plant Pathology
• Forensic Botany and Soil Analysis
• Plant DNA Barcoding for Species Identification

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Psychology

• False Memory Formation and Witness Testimony
• Investigative Interviewing Techniques
• Psychological Profiling in Criminal Investigations
• Eyewitness Identification Accuracy
• Deception Detection in Forensic Contexts
• Risk Assessment and Recidivism Prediction
• Mental Health in Correctional Facilities
• Psychological Factors in Jury Decision-Making
• Forensic Assessment of Competency to Stand Trial
• Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders
• Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Forensic Psychology in Child Custody Cases
• Behavioral Analysis in Criminal Profiling
• Mental Health and Criminal Responsibility
• Psychological Effects of Crime on Victims
• Psychopathy and Antisocial Behavior
• Juvenile Offenders and Intervention Strategies
• Forensic Neuropsychology and Brain Imaging
• Forensic Assessment of Risk in Violent Offenders
• Witness Credibility and Memory Distortion

Exploring the world of Forensic Science has been a thrilling journey through mysteries and discoveries. With more than 299 forensic science research topics, we’ve uncovered the secrets behind DNA, cyber mysteries, bones, and much more. From decoding crimes with linguistics to unraveling wildlife mysteries, every category held its own treasure of knowledge.

 Remember, these topics aren’t just for experts, they invite everyone to dive into the fascinating world of crime-solving science. As we conclude this adventure, let these topics inspire curiosity and understanding in unraveling the secrets of the forensic world in 2024 and beyond.

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155 best forensic science research topics for your paper.

Forensic science or criminalistics applies scientific methodology and principles to solving crime and aid criminal justice procedures and laws. This area of study covers many fields ranging from computer forensics to doctoral research and forensic psychology.

For students specializing in forensic science studies, it is common to have to write an essay, research paper, or dissertation on the subject’s topics. The tricky part here is to select the perfect topic from a wide array of forensic science topics for a research paper. You could work on something that focuses on a neglected area of study in the field or go in for a controversial topic. You can also pick a common topic and throw new light on it, or simply choose a topic highlighting societal trends.

Whatever you choose to work on, it is essential to clearly state your research question/topic, offer defensible logic, have a well-elaborated body and a concise conclusion to score well.

Here is a list of some of the most interesting research topics in forensic science, which will allow you to write a good essay and score well. Take a look:

Forensic Science Research Paper Topics

These are some common but good forensic science topics that are sure to get you great reviews:

• Hereditary in fingerprints and pattern similarities among family members
• Is it possible to solve crimes with forensic dentistry?
• Understanding the crime through the skeletal remains of the victim
• Victim identification through skeletal remains
• The association between legal ethics, forensic dentistry, and crime-solving
• Techniques of gathering DNA sample through buccal cell collection in possibly violent subjects
• Using forensic anthropology to identify relations, family, and ancestry
• Using forensic anthropology to identify the age, gender, and size of the victim.
• Forensic evidence – Types, chain of custody, collection, and analysis
• Using forensic anthropology to identify trauma and disease history
• Forensic ballistics and how the type of weapon used can be confirmed?
• Are standard hair tests accurate in racial estimation and solving crimes
• How to develop the best fingerprint testing powder for unmatched result clarity
• The role of forensic psychology in assessing the probability and incidence rate of rape
• Forensic toxicology and its role in analyzing the effects of anti-stress drugs on military members
• The growing need for researching the technologies supporting forensic geomorphology
• Blood spatter studies that aid forensic science in solving crimes
• Forensic microscopy – an insight
• Hair and fibers – What they say in forensic science crime cases
• Poison chemistry – how forensic experts work
• Forensic investigations of WW1 and WW-II war graves
• Forensic reconstructions – importance, role, and scope in solving crimes
• The laws and principles guiding forensic science
• Sawn-off shotguns — evaluating pellet distribution pattern based on barrel length
• Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of skeletal remains – An overview of the technique
• Forensic ballistics — what a bullet may tell about the crime and the weapon used
• Forensic evidence — assembling the pieces to the criminal jigsaw
• Drug detection timelines — an insight
• Development and validation of the method used to assess the quality of friction skin impression for evidence
• Fatal intoxication through Isotonitazine – A case study

Forensic Science Research Topics For High School

These are excellent topics for high school students, which are easy to work on and create impressive essays related to forensic science:

• Comparing sibling fingerprints with strangers
• Finding out if fingerprints of identical twins are also similar
• Differences to quickly separate human skeletal remains from those of animals
• Victim identification – What you must know about facial skeleton
• DNA testing – uses and limitations
• Different types of stab injuries are important from a forensic science perspective
• The dental pattern of wild animals and ways to recognize them.
• Blood spatter patterns and what they indicate about the crime
• Creating blood spatter lab for better understanding of spatter patterns
• Forensic science autopsy reports and what they indicate
• Careers in forensic science and upcoming specializations
• Forensic science and analysis of fiber evidence from the crime scene.
• Good practices in forensic science laboratories
• Handwriting analysis and how it helps forensic science professionals
• The role of Forensic Genealogy in solving age-old cases
• Iodine fuming to reveal latent fingerprints
• Immunoassay techniques for protein identification
• Thin Layer & Paper Chromatography to identify materials
• Forensic art as a means to identify suspects
• Gas chromatography to identify liquids

Interesting topics To Research That Have to Do With Forensic Science

These research topics related to forensic science will help you create an exciting write-up that will draw attention to your knowledge in the subject:

• Studying the composition of cling film used to package illegal drugs to separate drug traffickers from consumers
• Dense materials and their role in Geoforensics
• DNA typing – Pros and cons from a crime-solving perspective
• Using gene expression to assess the age of injury
• Differences in stab injuries that confirm if wounds were antemortem or postmortem
• The study of glass fracture pattern to assess bullet firing direction and distances
• Ground-penetrating radar systems and their role in Geoforensics
• Gamma-ray radiography and its role in crime-solving geomorphology studies
• What insects tell us about the murder scene
• The correct way to prepare a forensic autopsy report
• Forensic psychology and law – an insight
• The forensic science behind fire investigations
• Organic chemistry and its role in forensic science for solving crimes
• Mathematics and statistics — how they aid cases of forensic science
• The forensic science behind identifying forgery and counterfeiting
• Use of 3D imaging for visualization of footwear and tire impressions at the crime scene
• Fluid dynamics study to assess bloody fingerprints at the crime scene
• Audio recordings — interpretation and processing to build a case
• Recorded gunshot sounds and how they are interpreted and analyzed to solve crimes
• Cartridge case comparisons to assess pressure factors in firearms

Controversial Topics In Forensic Science

This is a collection of research paper topics for forensic science that is sure to spark a debate when discussed in class:

• Are changes in the composition of cling film used for drug packaging of any forensic value to arrest criminals?
• DNA typing — an analysis of the efficacy of this technique in identifying victims and unsolved crimes
• Isotope ratio mass spectrometry — an analysis of accuracy concerning the crime, its conditions, and people involved
• Flies that come on a dead body based on its location and time of death
• Forensic psychology and its impact on instances of Military rape
• Is forensic toxicology research lacking in assessing drug abuse among military personnel during combat?
• Is Forensic geomorphology helpful in solving crimes?
• Skeletal tissues and forensic microscopy — the role they play in solving crimes
• Forensic science and how it makes the dead speak
• Characteristics of Zopiclone degradation and consequences from a forensic toxicology perspective
• Understanding what happens to the body when someone dies naturally vs. a violent death.
• Criminal minds and their forensic psychology
• The role of Trace DNA in criminal investigations and its reliability
• Criminal profiling and the role of Forensic psychology in arresting the killer
• Forensic victimology and its role in context with investigations and legal parameters

Forensic Science Topics For Presentation

Suppose you want to make a presentation on any aspect of forensic science. In that case, you can consider the topics given below as they provide sufficient scope and information:

• How to extract fingerprints from a crime scene
• Equipment used in crime scene fingerprinting and the process
• How to identify skeletal remains of a human subject
• Building the face of a human through the remains of their skeleton
• Know all about the various techniques used in forensic anthropology
• Cyber forensics – How to catch a hacker
• Methods of DNA testing
• Methods of DNA testing of unwilling subjects
• Standard forensic hair tests used in forensic examinations
• Identification of cell type and body fluid through RNA based methods
• Types of flies that congregate on a dead body indicating the time of death
• A detailed step-by-step guide to forensic deduction
• Cyber Forensics – how to detect phishing
• Forensic science – the basics of crime scene analysis
• Forensic frauds and laws around examiner misconduct
• Methods and tools used by forensic pathologists
• Forensic autopsy Vs. Regular Autopsy
• The Muscid fly and its forensic importance
• The role of forensic science in tracking victims of human trafficking
• Evaluation of footwear impression — a step by step guide of the Footwear Impression Comparison System (FICS)

Forensic Science Thesis Topics

Use any of the topics given below to write an impressive thesis that showcases in-depth knowledge. These topics provide ample scope to delve deeper into the subject and write after thorough research.

• Fingerprint science — an insight
• Crime scene fingerprinting — a detailed study
• Forensic anthropology — an insight
• Forensic anthropological techniques for a detailed history of the victim
• Isotope ratio mass spectrometry — An Insight
• Computer forensics and its role in solving cybercrime
• Forensic toxicology and how it may help prevent military violence
• The role of forensic anthropology in postmortem findings
• DNA testing methodology — an insight into means available and their efficacy
• Reassessment of Asphyxia and the Pink Teeth Phenomenon
• Forensic psychology – differentiating sociopaths from psychopaths
• Study of blood in forensic science
• DNA typing – An insight into unsolved crimes and the use of this method
• Nanotechnology in Forensic studies – An insight
• Consumer protection in the world of growing cyber crimes and how cyber forensics can help
• Forensic toxicology – An insight
• Fingerprint ridge density and its relation with sex determination
• Forensic geomorphology – an extensive study of the scope and application of this field of study
• The history and evolution of forensic science
• Medical Image security using digital watermarking – An overview
• Anatomy of bruises and what they convey about the tracker and the victim
• Forensic psychology – Understanding the characteristics of psychopaths for profiling.
• High-Resolution Melt (HRM) assays – An insight
• Human vaginal matrix and the analysis of condom evidence from a forensic perspective
• Handprint dimensions for Sex classifications – the ABC model of forensic science

Current Topics in Forensic Science

These topics stem from the latest developments in forensic sciences and highlight the current environment in this field of study. Take a look:

• Latest techniques in forensic science to catch murderers
• Studying injury age using gene expression to solve the crime
• Latest forensic science techniques used to identify illicit drugs
• Developments in technology and chemistry that aid forensic science like never before
• Latest illegal drug recognition systems – an insight
• The amino acid fingerprint test – an evaluation
• Identifying of Felidae Animals using Elemental Analysis of Hair and its Scanning Electron Microscopic Characterization
• Pediatric Poisoning — Seasonal trends, materials and distribution across the UK.
• The UK forensic science environment and what has changed
• The changing scene of Geomorphology with gamma-ray radiography and ground-penetrating radar
• How stable is the use of Zopiclone in forensic studies related to whole blood samples
• Latest enhancements in RNA based methods for identification of cell type and body fluid
• The emerging role of computer forensics in cybercrime and the latest developments.
• Cyberwarfare and how cyber forensics fit in?
• Geoforensics – how soil mapping aids in solving crimes
• mRNA profiling assays and their role in reducing time and cost of analysis
• Latest technologies used in the identification of body fluids
• Latest trends in forensic odontology
• Heartbreak Grass deaths — A toxicological and medico-legal analysis
• Water-soluble paper analysis for forensic discrimination
• A worldwide survey of issues in forensic science – A contemporary perspective
• DNA study to assess regular occupancy in any vehicle
• Methods of assessing authentic audio recordings using different voice apps
• An insight into the DNA extraction process for DNA identification in bodies
• One-handed strangulation – A reconstruction study to find the criminal

If you are looking to submit an impressive dissertation or essay on a topic on forensic science and are still confused about how to proceed, get in touch with us. We can help you find impressive topics for your dissertation and help with forensic science research proposal topics. We have a strong team of expert writers and provide an array of high-quality, professional writing services for college and high school students.

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231 Amazing Forensic Science Research Topics

What is forensic science? Forensic Science is a field of academic study that entails applying scientific methods and processes to solve crimes. It mainly applies to the courts of the judicial system. College students should use scientific innovations and forensic science advancements to bring solutions to criminal offenses. Due to the technicality of the field, it is rare to find professional forensic science topics. However, our expert writers have collated a list of 231 writing ideas that you can use for your following paper. If you want to have a good grade, but find writing a research paper a really difficult task, it’s better to hire a someone to complete your assignment.  

Easy Forensic Science Research Paper Topics

• The development of forensic science since the late 18th century
• Impacts of the extraordinary scientific innovations and advancements to forensic Science
• The application of DNA and botany to forensic Science
• How forensic science helps in the examination of physical evidence
• The role of forensic research to clear and concise reporting
• What is the essence of a truthful testimony of a forensic scientist?
• A case study of criminal cases and convictions handled through forensic Science
• How forensic Science brings out objective facts through scientific knowledge
• Impact of private companies conducting forensic Science
• An evaluation of microscopic examining techniques
• Mathematical principles used in forensic study
• Why a majority of forensic scientists work in forensic labs or morgues
• Qualifications or one to work as an independent forensic science consultant
• Analyze the composition of forensic pathologists
• Discuss the distinct roles of forensic deontologists
• How is digital forensics a game-changer in solving homicides?
• Fields of criminal justice and the law that deals with forensics
• Understanding the scientific and social environment of the criminal justice system

High-Quality Forensic Science Topics For a Research Paper

• Assess some selected concepts of forensic engineering
• Discuss the legal standards of admissible evidence
• How forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence
• The impact of forensic scientists testifying as expert witnesses
• How the ancient world operated without forensics
• Compare and contrast forced confessions and witness testimony to forensics
• The relationship between medicine and entomology in solving criminal cases
• The role of Ambroise Paré in laying a groundwork for forensic Science
• How the Enlightenment era contributed to the development of forensics
• A case study of John Toms’ trial and conviction for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol
• How James Marsh applied Science to the art of forensics
• Analyze the use of bullet comparison in 1835
• Discuss the anthropological technique of anthropometry
• Factors affecting forensic document examination
• Effectiveness of the use of fingerprinting in identifying criminal suspects
• Discuss the evolution of forensic DNA analysis from 1984
• How effective was a scientific and surgical investigation in forensics?
• The role of crime scene photography to forensics

Hot Research Topics in Forensic Science

• The role of biological evidence and DNA in Forensic Science
• How fingerprints and pattern evidence contribute to forensics
• Discuss the impact of Opioids and other illegal drugs on forensic study
• The effect of technology in building digital evidence
• Factors that affect effective ballistics in pre-meditated murder
• How to trace evidence using forensics
• The importance of the National Commission on Forensic Science
• Conduct an analysis of pattern and impression evidence
• The relationship between trace evidence and chemistry
• Evidence analysis and processing using forensic Science
• How to use controlled substances in a forensic study
• Discuss the alternative genetic markers in forensics
• How to deal with compromised DNA evidence in forensics
• The impact of automation and miniaturization in forensics
• Why the mitochondrial DNA is critical in forensic Science
• Discuss the steps involved in the Y-chromosome analysis
• How to conduct effective sperm detection and separation
• How to determine culprits behind fire and arson through forensic study

A+ Forensic Science Research Proposal Topics

• Addressing the reliability and credibility of pattern and impression evidence
• Rigorously test the method of forensic DNA analysis
• Develop strategies to detect and identify new drugs
• Discuss the psychological implications of Forensic Science
• Why computer forensics and cybercrime is becoming more complicated
• Evaluate the advancements made in forensic toxicology and military violence
• Considerations for Geo-forensics and dense material
• The impact of ground-penetrating radar and gamma-ray radiography on forensics
• Assess a typical day in the office for a forensic chemist
• Qualities that forensic practitioners must possess
• The state of forensic nursing in the United States
• Discuss the correlation between forensics and law
• How to expand the field of forensics through forensic intelligence
• The cognitive aspect of forensic Science
• How to integrate forensic Science into the curriculum
• Are American academies of forensic Science up to the standard?
• The role of police science technicians in solving crimes
• Application areas of Physics in forensic Science

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Impressive Research Paper Topics For Forensic Science

• Is it justifiable to use animals in forensic science research?
• How to best communicate forensic science evidence in the criminal justice system
• Effectiveness and perceived trustworthiness of Forensic Science
• The sociology of Forensic Science in the 21st century
• The necessity of geographic forensic medicine
• The role of DNA methylation in forensic Science
• Is there a need for more research in forensic science?
• Are some forensic practices slowly becoming out of date?
• The desirability of specific technologies to be used in forensic Science
• Physical and social considerations for an effective forensic investigation
• Discuss the essence of nanoparticles in forensic Science
• The relationship between clinical research and forensic medicine
• A historical perspective of parasites in forensic Science
• Systems of classifying handwritings in forensic Science
• Analyze the drawbacks in the development of forensic study
• How to incorporate arguments into a forensic trial
• Does a degree in forensic Science guarantee you a job in Pentagon?
• Discuss the educational requirements for forensic scientists

Excellent Research Topics Related to Forensic Science

• Microbiome tools used for forensic Science
• The impact of new psychoactive substances in forensic Science
• Who should accredit undergraduate forensic science students?
• The effect of DTIC and technology on computer forensics
• The application of forensic Science in army counterintelligence
• What is the future of forensic Science in wildlife?
• Possible initiatives that can help strengthen forensic Science
• What an error means for a forensic study
• Is the curriculum for high school students on forensic Science effective enough?
• Why next-generation sequencing technology is necessary for forensics
• Current utilization of the internet for forensic Science
• The impact of search engines and databases in forensic study
• The ethological and cultural evolution of forensic Science
• Assessment of the effectiveness of forensic science in criminal law
• The result of big data on forensic Science and medicine
• Why molecular imprinting is necessary for forensic study
• Narratives and Science in forensic historiography
• The effect of infrared spectroscopy imaging on forensic Science

Top Forensic Science Research Topics For High School

• Discuss the nuclear forensics for a high school science
• The impact of visual color comparisons in forensic Science
• The effect of the grand innovation challenges for the forensic community
• A survey of the courses offered in Forensic Science
• Historical trends in the study of forensic anthropology
• Can forensic identification evidence be null on the grounds of reliability?
• What makes forensic chemistry unique among chemical sciences?
• A critical diagnosis of the paradigms of Forensic Science
• The impact of age estimation in forensic Science
• How forensic Science w in insulin poisoning
• The effect of virtual reality and simulations on forensic study
• Challenges for research in the field of forensic medicine
• A survey of educational institutions offering forensic Science
• How forensic science contributes to wildlife conservation efforts
• Identify the prevalent problems in forensic genetic approaches
• A review of forensic science in the context of Islamic law
• Discuss the process of accrediting forensic science labs
• A review of the role of the FBI in forensic Science

Interesting Topics to Research That Have to do With Forensic Science

• Using atomic force microscopy in forensic Science
• Discuss the limitations of using environmental forensic microscopy
• Understanding and utilizing the human element in forensic Science
• Discuss the considerations for psychiatric caring in forensic Science
• How RNA works in forensic Science
• A contextual analysis of digital stratigraphy in forensic Science
• Analysis of the challenges facing nuclear forensic Science
• What happens when a forensic investigation goes out of control?
• Ethical considerations in the field of forensic Science
• Why crime scene management is necessary for forensic investigation
• How the Raman spectroscopy has contributed to forensic Science
• A study of the inconsistencies in the curricula of forensic science degree programs
• Evaluate the use of simulation in forensic nursing and competency
• How to bridge the gap between forensic Science and entomology
• The role of detectives in a forensic science investigation
• New perspectives impacting the study of forensic Science
• Discuss the integration of forensic examination into imageology
• The impact of television production and modern storytelling in forensics

Unearthed Forensic Science Topics

• Testing the validity and reliability of forensic voices
• The role of pictures in crime investigation and scene reconstruction
• A theoretical evaluation of forensic nursing science
• Why is the field of forensic science dominated by men
• Emotional and psychological impacts of being a forensics expert
• Technological means of advancing the Science of forensics
• How to select a hypothesis and test common misinterpretations in forensics
• The relationship between culture, law, and forensics in criminal justice
• Discover the discrepancies in Forensic Science in the US and UK
• Potential applications of Forensic Science in the aviation industry
• The role of podiatric knowledge and experience in forensic investigations
• Investigating sudden cardiac death using forensic Science
• Why pattern uniqueness is relevant in forensic Science
• How forensic investigations are necessary for human rights investigations
• Understanding the cognitive neuroscience in forensic Science
• A methodological approach to the use of IRMS in forensic Science
• The power of forensic Science in facial recognition
• Discuss the relationship between forensic Science and Standards Act of 2012

Controversial Topics in Forensic Science

• How accurate is racial-estimation in standard hair-tests amongst forensic hair examiners?
• Implications of illicit-tablet recognition systems to human health
• Is the use of forensic-DNA ethical?
• Why a cling-film is the best product for packaging illicit drugs
• Do some forensic science methods contribute to racial profiling?
• How forensics is a leading contributor to the invasion of the right to privacy
• Legislative responses that are taking shape in the light of Forensic Science
• Why wrongful convictions have happened as a result of forensics
• Reasons why problems can be present in forensic Science
• The limitations of ballistic and hair analysis
• Is there a lack of scientific credibility in forensics?
• Can error rates occur in the case of DNA analysis?
• The relationship between forensic tools and underlying Science
• Evaluate the massive post-conviction review of 2,500 points by the FBI
• Are the self-regulatory codes in forensic Science sufficient enough?
• The impact of the low number of forensics on its effectiveness
• The effect of the absence of regulatory organizations on forensic Science
• Dealing with the professional misconduct of a forensic scientist

Forensic Science Topics For Presentation

• The relationship between forensics and the application of Science to law
• Discuss the arbitrary distinction between ethics and morals in forensics
• Evaluate the religious considerations when conducting forensics
• Evaluate what constitutes a misrepresentation of the credentials before the court of law
• The rising cases of counterfeit professional licensures or certifications
• The impacts of movies and TV series’ on forensic Science
• Is the increasing number of private forensic consultants something to worry about in the 21st century?
• Do public forensic laboratories portray a higher ethical ground than private ones?
• Critically analyze the innate responsibility and obligation of forensic scientists towards the forensic science profession
• Recognizing the limitations of scientific and professional forensic knowledge
• Discuss situations when forensic Science may deprive one of the fundamental human rights
• Why forensic scientists must be reasonably familiar with the judicial or administrative rules
• Factors that may lead to lack of objectivity and exploitation among forensic scientists
• Discuss the institutional policy requirements that may limit proper forensic study
• The dilemma of multiple relationships in forensic Science
• Why a forensic scientist must seek consent before proceeding with an investigation
• The critical role of protecting the client’s confidentiality in forensic study
• The part of the documentation in forensic study

Forensic Science Thesis Topics

• How to synthesize powder to develop the best prints
• Analyze the different types of stab injury postmortem
• How to study glass fracture patterns through firing bullets from various positions
• Conduct an in-depth analysis of the different types of inks
• Discuss how to identify counterfeits
• Reliable methods of evidence preservation for long cases
• Discuss the genetic variability of different phylogenetic in forensic Science
• The role of paper spray mass spectrometry in detecting hazardous chemicals
• Discuss the viability of a shared ballistics database between two conflicting countries
• Necessary improvements to buccal cell collection for DNA testing
• Analyze the common factors that affect the composition of the cling film
• Critically analyze how the change in nature affects a crime site
• Evaluate the different technological approaches to forensic Science
• Assess the reliability of evidence after an error occurred in the first test
• Evaluate the efficiency of USB devices in remote monitoring among computer users
• Discuss the gaps that exist in America’s police force: Inconsistencies in forensic services
• How accurate is racial estimation using standard hair tests?
• Compare and contrast the different tablet recognition systems used by the FBI.

Current Topics in Forensic Science

• The impact of coronavirus on forensic Science
• Why the 5G technology may be the game-changer in the field of forensic Science
• The role of hacking software in tracing digital footprints online
• Why global warming is posing a threat to uncovering past cases using forensics
• Why is the study of forensic science essential in the 21st century?
• What is the best major for forensic Science for college students?
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the criteria for forensic Science
• Is the field of forensic Science a well-paying job arena?
• Do judges depend on forensic evidence in court?
• What is the impact of a long time taken during forensic studies on a case?
• Who is responsible for an error during forensic research?
• Why documenting forensics scenes in the 21st century has become more efficient
• Impact of laser scanners, photogrammetry, and drones in forensic Science
• Latest technologies to conduct bloodstain pattern analysis
• Why computational forensics is raising safety issues

And there you have a list of 231 good forensic science topics. If you wish to learn how to write a paper, our custom help is all you need. Let us show you how to complete a forensic paper fast and easy today! Contact us with a “ do my research paper now” request and get an A+. 

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What is a literature review?

A literature review DOES:

• discuss the work of others
• describe, in a narrative fashion, the major developments that relate to your research question
• evaluate other researchers' methods and findings
• identify any gaps in their research
• indicate how your research is going to be different in some way

A literature review DOESN'T:

• simply list all the resources that you consult in developing your research (that would be a Works Cited or Works Consulted page)
• simply list resources with a few factual, non-evaluative notes about what is in each work (that would be an Annotated Bibliography)
• try to discuss every bit of research that has ever been done relating to your topic (that would be far too big of a task)
• try to prove your hypothesis or explain your evidence/findings (that comes later, in the main part of your research paper)

The literature review should be organized in some logical fashion: 

• chronologically
• thematically
• methodologically -- i.e., the research methods (case studies? interviews? clinical trials?) or evaluative techniques used by different researchers

Still confused?  See this guide  from UNC for a more detailed explanation of lit reviews.

This 2-minute video provides a brief overview of the point of a literature review and includes pointers on organization.

Literature Review SOC 499 from Marianne Navada on Vimeo .

In your student RCSA grant...

In various disciplines, the term "literature review" may refer to:

• Article-length studies which consist entirely of a review of academic literature on a given topic of study in a given discipline.
• One section of a scholarly article, dissertation, or even a book, in which the literature pertaining to the topic of study is reviewed.
• The practice, in whatever context, and to whatever purpose, of analytically reviewing the academic literature relevant to a topic.

In some disciplines, like the social sciences and the "hard" sciences, scholarly articles almost always have a "Literature Review" section.

In other disciplines, like the humanities, scholarly articles do not have a section so clearly demarcated; rather, they cite the literature throughout the text, so that the narrative review of scholarly literature develops in tandem with the study or thesis itself.

Nevertheless, the basic principles of how academic literature should be "reviewed" (sense #3 above) are fairly consistent.  In your RCSA Student Grant Proposal, the literature review should be part of the "Project Narrative" component of your application.

See the "Completed narrative" link here for an example of a successful Project Narrative from a prior year.

Resources in Chambers Library

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Forensic Science Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024

Forensic science is a branch of science or an application that enables using scientific tools, techniques, and principles to solve a criminal act. The application of Forensic science lies in the criminal justice system, whereby scientists probe an event to disclose the actual occurrences of a crime event.

Choosing forensic science as a career is valuable in terms of its novelty, progression, and demand. It is a fairly new field that has a lot of room for progress and advancement, with advancing technology and is in demand to dig out the ground realities of a crime. When you practice forensic science, no two days will be the same, unlike other professions. One day, you may be testing samples and making assessments of the results other days.

But before you start practising, you are required to complete your degree which is conditioned by conditioned with writing a dissertation in the final year. If you are clueless about where to start your dissertation, you are not alone. Go through some of the dissertation topics related to forensic science given below, along with their research aim, and get an idea of how to begin your dissertation.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a  brief research proposal  from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an  introduction  to the problem,  research question , aim and objectives,  literature review , along the proposed methodology  of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our  example dissertation  to get an idea of  how to structure your dissertation .

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Latest Forensic Science Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the challenges associated with pattern and impression evidence for recommending scientific foundations for accuracy, reliability and validity of forensic analysis.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the challenges associated with pattern and impression evidence to recommend scientific foundations for the accuracy, reliability, and validity of forensic analysis.

Objectives:

• To critically analyse the challenges of pattern and impression evidence in forensics.
• To evaluate the use of qualitative comparisons in forensic analysis of pattern evidence and impression to detect any scope of examiner bias.
• To recommend measures for increasing the accuracy, reliability and validity of forensic analysis based on scientific foundations.

Topic 2: Investigating the impact of medical imaging technologies for determining the cause of and manner of sudden death to potentially interpret evidence of foul play

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the impact of medical imaging technologies for determining the cause of and manner of sudden death to potentially interpret evidence of foul play

• To analyse the forensic sciences used in the determination of sudden death.
• To determine the role of medical imaging technologies in determining sudden death and foul play.
• To evaluate the impact of medical imaging technologies in determining the cause and manner of sudden infant death.

Topic 3: An evaluation of the impact of forensic odontology on solving crimes and legal ethics.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the impact of forensic odontology on solving crimes and the associated legal ethics.

• To analyse the role of forensic odontology in the identification of unknown diseased individuals.
• To analyse the impact of forensic odontology in solving medicolegal problems and providing expert testimony in criminal cases.
• To investigate the efficacy with which forensic odontologists identify human remains from crime scenes and detect signs of abuse or neglect among children and the elderly.

Topic 4: Evaluation of the impact of forensic anthropology on the identification of age, gender and size of crime victims.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the impact of forensic anthropology on the identification of age, gender and size of crime victims.

• To contextualise the role application of forensic anthropology in solving criminal cases.
• To analyse the work of forensic anthropologists and determine their role in crime scenes.
• To investigate the role of forensic anthropology in identifying the age, gender and size of crime victims.

Topic 5: Determining the effectiveness of blood spatter studies in identifying the nature and timing of crime at crime scenes

Research Aim: The research aims to determine the effectiveness of blood spatter studies in identifying the nature and timing of crime at crime scenes

• To determine the applications of blood spatter studies in forensic sciences.
• To analyse the methods of detecting the nature and timing of crime at the crime scenes.
• To investigate the effectiveness of blood spatter studies and the scientific basis in identifying the nature and timing of crime at crime scenes

Topic. 1: Forensic science in the 20th century and today

Research Aim: The research aim of the paper will be to find and analyse the differences between the forensic science that existed in the 20 th century and the forensic science that exists today. The research will also identify the basis for forensic science and identify the progress it has made in the time span.

Different methods can be employed to study the difference such as qualitative and quantitative analysis. In one way, forensic science’s conventional and modern methods and principles can be tested for accuracy and precision. In addition, forensic scientists can be interviewed about the differences that they have experienced in the testing methodologies.

Topic. 2: Case Study of the criminal cases and convictions resolved through forensic science

Research Aim: The aim of the research will be to study a couple or more cases that are resolved through forensic science. The research will identify in which capacity the forensic science was eminent in finding significant results, identifying the indicators, and thus disclosing the facts to resolve a complicated criminal case easily.

For more value, the researcher can study high-profile cases to identify the role of forensic science in resolving the most emphatic cases.

Topic. 3: Role of botany and entomology in the forensic science

Research Aim: Botany is the study of plants, and it is significantly related to forensic science. In forensic science, botany can be used to investigate a suspicious plant material at the crime scene. On the other hand, entomology is the study of insects. This study helps in finding the time since death and the source of the dead body.

The research will aim to find the wide importance of botany and entomology in forensic science. The researcher can examine the methods and principles of entomology and botany and identify their application in botany and entomology.

Topic. 4: The impact of swift changes and innovation in technology on the forensic science

Research Aim: Forensic science has improved and changed a lot from what it was twenty to thirty years ago. As innovations and advancements occur in the field of science, methods, techniques, tools, and principles are being modified and simplifie .

The main aim of the research will be to identify the changes and innovations in technology and find their significant impact on forensic science.

Topic. 5: Future of forensic science

Research Aim: The aim of the research will be to speculate on the future of forensic science while considering current aspects and trends. The researcher can study the opinions of forensic science researchers, examine trends, and reach a finding.

Topic. 6: Forensic science and ethical dilemmas

Research Aim: The application of forensic science is very vast, yet when it comes to ethical and moral ideologies, it has to stumble in some societies.

The aim of the research will be to identify the ethical dilemmas around forensic science in different regions of the world. The study may incorporate the assessment of cultural and religious values and examine the factors lying at the heart of the dilemmas.

Topic 7: Process of victim identification through skeletal remains

Research Aim: The research will find and discuss how a victim can be identified through skeletal remains and what steps they have to go through to find results. The research can also discuss the scope, significance, and progress made in the techniques and tools used for identification.

Topic 8: The future of forensic anthropology

Research Aim: Forensics is very useful in studying anthropology, which incorporates the scientific study of humans. The aim of the research will be to identify the future of forensic anthropology, considering to what extent forensics is applicable in anthropology today and how it will advance the study in the future if it does.

Topic 9: Value of crime scene photography in forensics

Research Aim: The research will carry out a scientific analysis of why crime scene photography is important in forensics. It will examine the cases with and without crime scene photography and their impact on forensics and, therefore on the results.

Topic. 10: Drugs and Forensics

Research Aim: The main aim of the research will be to identify the effects of opioids and other drugs on forensics and examine how they can halt or boost the examination process.

Topic. 11: Reliability of fingerprint and pattern impression evidence

Research Aim: The roots of forensics lie in the heart of fingerprint and pattern impressions.

The research will identify how reliable a fingerprint or other impression evidence is. It will find if it is easy to reach conclusive results with this evidence. And how wrong evidence can devastate the credibility of forensics.

Topic 12: The downsides of forensic science

Research Aim: While the scope of forensics is immense, we also need to identify the downside to it. The aim of the research will be to find the downsides of forensic science, its potential, and how it may affect the criminal justice system as a whole.

Topic. 13: Geographic forensic science

Research Aim: The research will aim to study and deeply analyse forensic geology. It will thoroughly study all four types of Geographic forensics: pedology, mineralogy and petrology; geophysics; natural geography and geoscience; remote sensing, location data and Geographic Information systems (GIS).

Topic. 14: Nuclear forensic science

Research Aim: Nuclear forensic science is the investigation and study of nuclear material to investigate the origin and history of the material.

The research will study and analyse Nuclear forensic science, its scope, implications, and future.

Topic. 15: Role of RNA in forensic science

Research Aim: Ribonucleic acid is a molecule in our body that is similar to DNA. While DNA plays a significant role in forensics, RNA also holds immense value.

The research will study the role of RNA in forensic science, its scope, and its principles for investigation.

Topic. 16: Role of Blood spatters in solving crimes

Research Aim: The research will aim to analyse and figure out the role of the blood spatters of the victim or culprit in investigating the time of death, the source that caused the blood spatters, and the identity of the victim or culprit.

Topic. 17: Forensic frauds and their penalties

Research Aim: Oftentimes, forensic reports are doctored to mislead the judiciary and save the real culprit. The research will find out if there are laws around handling forensic investigations and penalties for fraud around the world. The researcher can study the laws in a particular context—for example,  Forensic frauds and their penalties in Europe, or the United Kingdom, etc.

Topic. 18: History of Forensic Science

Research Aim: The main research aim of the research will be to study and analyse the history of forensic science. The research will make significant, useful contrasts to understand the roots of forensics and its evolution.

Topic. 19: Understanding Antemortem, Perimortem, and Postmortem

Research Aim: Experts have to differentiate between antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem bone fracture to estimate the postmortem interval. The research aim will be to understand the concepts of antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem and their scope in forensics.

Topic. 20: Forensic science and facial recognition

Research Aim: The main aim of the research is to identify and analyse the scope of financial recognition in forensics. It will also discuss the developments and prospects in the field.

Topic 21: The Role of Forensic Anthropology in Mass Disaster Victim Identification.

Research Aim: This research investigates the role of forensic anthropology in the process of mass disaster victim identification. The study focuses on its methodologies, technologies, challenges, and advancements.

Topic 22: DNA Profiling and its Application in Forensic Investigations.

Research Aim: This study explores the principles, methodologies, and applications of DNA profiling in forensic investigations. It focuses on understanding its significance, challenges, and advancements. The research further aims to provide insights into improving forensic techniques.

Topic 23: Digital Forensics and Challenges and Innovations in Cybercrime Investigations.

Research Aim: This research examines the evolving landscape of digital forensics, including its methodologies, challenges, and innovative techniques, within the context of cybercrime investigations.

Topic 24: Forensic Entomology: Advancements in Estimating Postmortem Interval.

Research Aim: This study explores the latest advancements in forensic entomology for estimating postmortem interval (PMI), encompassing methodologies, technologies, and challenges, with the objective of enhancing the accuracy and reliability of PMI determination in forensic investigations.

Topic 25: The Effectiveness of Forensic Odontology in Human Identification.

Research Aim: This research assesses the effectiveness and reliability of forensic odontology in human identification, exploring its methodologies, techniques, limitations, and advancements to elucidate its role in forensic investigations.

Topic 26: The Use of Isotopic Analysis in Forensic Investigations.

Research Aim: To investigate the use of isotopic analysis in forensic investigations, examining its methodologies, applications, limitations, and advancements to understand its efficacy in tracing geographical origins, dietary habits, and movement patterns of individuals.

Topic 27: The Use of Geographical Profiling in Serial Crime Investigations.

Research Aim: To examine the effectiveness and applications of geographical profiling in serial crime investigations, exploring its methodologies, algorithms, limitations, and advancements, to understand its role in identifying offender spatial behaviour patterns, assisting law enforcement agencies in prioritising investigative resources, and enhancing the apprehension of serial offenders.

Topic 28: The Role of Forensic Genetics in Ancestry and Kinship Analysis.

Research Aim: To investigate the role of forensic genetics in ancestry and kinship analysis, exploring methodologies, technologies, challenges, and advancements to understand its utility in tracing familial relationships and ancestral origins, contributing to the resolution of criminal cases, and informing ethical considerations surrounding genetic privacy and identity.

Topic 29: Forensic Botany: Investigating Plant Evidence in Wildlife Crime Cases.

Research Aim: To explore the application of forensic botany in wildlife crime investigations, examining methodologies, techniques, challenges, and advancements, to understand its efficacy in analysing plant evidence, identifying species, and reconstructing crime scenes.

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How to find forensic science dissertation topics.

To discover forensic science dissertation topics:

• Research recent advancements.
• Examine unsolved cases or challenges.
• Investigate emerging technologies.
• Explore DNA, digital forensics, etc.
• Analyse legal and ethical aspects.
• Select a topic aligning with your passion and expertise.

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FSCI: 3401 Forensic Science Research

Why do a literature review, step 1: select a topic, step 2: search the literature, step 3: write the review.

• How to Read a Scholarly Article
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Be sure to select a topic you can manage in the time frame you have to complete the project.  Narrow down the topic if it is too broad.  If you need help with this, ask your professor, ask a librarian, or use subject suggestions in GALILEO.

Use a variety of sources: books, articles, conference proceedings, government reports, thesis and dissertations, etc!  Do NOT rely solely on electronic full-text material (which is readily available).  Reference resources, such as dictionaries, may be useful in defining key terminology, and encyclopedic sources may provide a good introduction in to specific areas of the topic. 

The most important part of this step is to review and analyze the literature you collect!  The review process is ongoing - you may need to go back to locate additional materials as you identify new ideas to see if others have written on similar topics.

During the review, you can begin to notice patterns in the literature, and to separate your findings in to different categories. 

Remember, a literature review is NOT simply a list of the resources with a summary of each one!

You can organize the review in many ways; for example, you can center the review historically (how this topic has been dealt with over time); or center it on the theoretical positions surrounding your topic (those for a position vs. those against, for example); or you can focus on how each of your sources contributes to your understanding of your project.

Your literature review should include

• an introduction which explains how your review is organized
• a body which contains the headings and subheadings that provide a map to show the various perspectives of your argument
• a summary for each source
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Forensic Science Dissertation Topics: 20+ Ideas For Your Research

by  Antony W

July 11, 2022

If you’re a student currently studying for a PhD in forensic science, you’ll need to write a dissertation in your area of study to graduate and earn your masters. That’s why it’s important to look at some forensic science dissertation topics to help you find an area to investigate further in your research.

Forensic science is an area of study that focuses on the application of science to civil and criminal law during criminal investigation. As a forensics student, you’ll learn how to examine traces of material evidence to determine what exactly occurred. Also, the study involves the presentation of impartial scientific evidence that the authorities can use in court.

Our guide to choosing dissertation topics , even for the field of forensic, remains unchanged. Choose an interesting topic, but one that you can explore within the scope or research constraints of the project.

With that said, let’s look at some interesting topics that you can start to explore right away.

Forensic Science Dissertation Topics

Here are some interesting forensic dissertation topics that are likely to catch your professor’s attention. Pick any of the topic depending on the selection criteria we’ve shared with you and present it to your supervisor for review.

1. General Issues in Forensic Studies

We can define forensic science as the application of scientific procedures such as data gathering, testing, and observation to discover how historical events occurred with the goal of generating unbiased evidence in a court of law.

Formally, the term forensic referred to public gathering spaces where individuals assembled to talk about criminal matters. Defendants would utilize these venues to testify in front of a court about their innocence. There has been an evolution to the term, which now refers to the act of collecting of legal evidence that the people involved in a case can produce in a court.

Notably, forensic science also involves the application of scientific and empirical methodologies to falsify or verify evidence to determine the trustworthiness of a case.

Some dissertation topics that you can research further in this category are as follows: 

• Is there uniformity in forensic services across England because of the unification of England’s police forces?
• An evaluation of the efficiency of dry vacuuming approach to retrieve DNA from handwritten papers
• Identification of the effects of microwave radiation on protein digestion in bodily fluids
• Examine keystroke biometrics’ potential as a forensic technique for user profiling.
• Examine the effectiveness of applying gene expression approaches to examine aging injuries and injury age assessment
• An examination of the evidence linked to arsonists’ clothing that has suffered superficial heat damage
• Environmental pollen analysis as a method for detecting counterfeit cigarettes

Also Read: How to Reference a Dissertation Project

2. Ethical Issues

In contrast to trade-based occupations, forensic science is controlled by a self-imposed ethical code of conduct that all practitioners must follow.

The following are examples of great topics that you can explore in your dissertation project, if you decide to do a forensic project on ethical issues:

• Examine the argument that outsourcing forensic scientific work to private contractors in the United Kingdom has resulted in a drop in quality.
• What influence is the growing employment of private forensic consultants, who may not be bound by the same disciplinary rules as regular forensic consultants, having on the field of forensic science?
• What ethical issues do you see with DNA sample collecting, storage, access, retention, and sharing right now?
• To what degree is it an ethical dilemma for forensic science to utilize genetic research results to assign ethnic and racial designations to samples found at a crime scene?

Get custom dissertation writing help form a team of professional writers who have experience in writing the best dissertation topics in Forensic science. Get up to 30% discount on your order and enjoy the flexibility of assignment writing help .

3. Current and Emerging Issues in Forensic Science

The ways in which crimes are committed and investigated are evolving because of technological advancements and society’s growing reliance on technology. The globe is on the verge of a slew of new technologies that will open up new avenues for criminals while also posing new obstacles for law enforcement.

The most prominent example is the threat posed by cybercrime. Other technologies, such as artificial intelligence and blockchain, are examples of completely new fields that will bring dramatic change in forensic investigation.

Some topics you can explore in this category are as follows:

• Examine the effectiveness of USB devices and remote monitoring software in controlling sex offenders’ computer usage.
• In light of globally accepted legal norms, examine the most often utilized approaches in forensic bitcoin investigations.
• What are the applications of Deep Learning, a subset of Artificial Intelligence, in cyber-forensics?
• What are the forensic issues posed by the Internet of Things and its increased criminal potential?
• What are the benefits of using blockchain technology to aid digital forensics?
• Examine the use of forensic science in analyzing the usage of cryptocurrency payment flows in a variety of criminal activities.
• How well equipped is forensic science for technological advancements and, by extension, technology-enabled crime?

You May Also Like: How to Create an Outline for a Dissertation

Brexit has had and continues to have a significant influence on the British economy and society. The growth of police and judicial cooperation in the EU has helped the United Kingdom. These have included participation in Europol, the EU’s arrest warrant, and the exchange of forensic data. These advantages have been in the field of forensic science, notably in terms of scientific funding and collaboration with EU research initiatives.

One of the most pressing questions is how the UK’s criminal justice system and forensic science, in particular, can cope now that the UK is no longer a member of the EU.

Here are some of the best dissertation topics to consider following the present Brexit issue:

• Examine the impact of the United Kingdom’s absence from European research programs on UK forensic science and technology institutes’ worldwide reach.
• In light of UK policing and criminal justice opt-outs, assess the possibility of a shared European ballistics database.
• Examine the implications of Brexit on the sharing of forensic data with the European Union.
• What influence will Brexit have on other advances that are currently reshaping UK forensic science skills and capacities, such as digital, cyber forensic technologies, and the use of AI in forensic settings?
• To what degree is Brexit going to jeopardize UK forensic science’s long-term viability?

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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How to Write A Review Paper

A review article, also known as literature review, is an evaluation of previously published literature or data on a topic. It gives an overview of what has been done and found and generally does not present new data from the author’s own experiments.

The objectives of a literature review is to lay down a comprehensive foundation on the existing literature and current trends, highlight the main methodologies and research techniques, provide a critical and constructive analysis and possibly identify potential areas for future studies. Review articles, thus, help other researchers by laying out the current knowledge, existing gaps and future research directions.

Given below are a few guidelines on how to write a review paper.

• Choose a topic and define the scope: The foremost step is to do a broad survey of research topics. Current research questions of public interest or any areas of controversy in the field of interest may be used as factors in deciding the topic. Define the scope of your article so that the topic is not too broad to be thoroughly addressed, nevertheless, it should also be kept in mind to choose a topic with sufficient background information.
• Search for sources to evaluate: Once the topic has been identified, find scientifically legitimate sources of information on the topic and narrow it down to the most significant ones to be evaluated. While reading a research paper or book chapter, make sure to note down the important points or central claims made by the author along with the supporting data and identify any contradictions or inconsistencies or unanswered questions found.
• Create an outline: Organise your points and create an outline of the article structure and list the topics or sub-topics that you want to incorporate in your article logically, which will also later constitute the main elements of your article.
• Decide on the title of the review article: The title should be concise, informative and should clearly reflect the main focus of the article.
• Introduce the topic: The introduction should provide an overview of the topic along with the necessary background information. It should also put forward the central theme of the article and its relevance.
• Write the body of the paper: Elucidate the important results from the primary literature articles and describe their importance and contributions. Nevertheless, keep in mind that a review article is not a pure summary of the research paper that you have reviewed. The main body should be a critical analysis of the primary source where the original information interpreted in a meaningful way. In other words, instead of simply asserting the comments already reported by the primary source, go beyond and identify research gaps or opportunities for further research.
• Conclude the article: Summarise the major points briefly and point out the significance of such findings, for example, whether there has been any changes in the understanding of this topic since the last review. It should also shed light on the current challenges faced by researchers working on this topic or questions that are yet to be addressed or any other suggestions for further research.
• Cite your references: List out all the scientific papers or books that you have reviewed in the bibliography section. Read the journal’s instructions. Not every journal shares the same guidelines, therefore, before submitting carefully read the instructions of the journal where you wish to submit the review and make sure your article meets the journal’s page limits or formatting requirements.

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Recent advances in forensic science research

For immediate release, acs news service weekly presspac: april 20, 2022.

Forensic scientists collect and analyze evidence during a criminal investigation to identify victims, determine the cause of death and figure out “who done it.” Below are some recent papers published in ACS journals reporting on new advances that could help forensic scientists solve crimes. Reporters can request free access to these papers by emailing  newsroom@acs.org .

“Insights into the Differential Preservation of Bone Proteomes in Inhumed and Entombed Cadavers from Italian Forensic Caseworks” Journal of Proteome Research March 22, 2022 Bone proteins can help determine how long ago a person died (post-mortem interval, PMI) and how old they were at the time of their death (age at death, AAD), but the levels of these proteins could vary with burial conditions. By comparing bone proteomes of exhumed individuals who had been entombed in mausoleums or buried in the ground, the researchers found several proteins whose levels were not affected by the burial environment, which they say could help with AAD or PMI estimation.

“Carbon Dot Powders with Cross-Linking-Based Long-Wavelength Emission for Multicolor Imaging of Latent Fingerprints” ACS Applied Nanomaterials Jan. 21, 2022 For decades, criminal investigators have recognized the importance of analyzing latent fingerprints left at crime scenes to help identify a perpetrator, but current methods to make these prints visible have limitations, including low contrast, low sensitivity and high toxicity. These researchers devised a simple way to make fluorescent carbon dot powders that can be applied to latent fingerprints, making them fluoresce under UV light with red, orange and yellow colors.

“Proteomics Offers New Clues for Forensic Investigations” ACS Central Science Oct. 18, 2021 This review article describes how forensic scientists are now turning their attention to proteins in bone, blood or other biological samples, which can sometimes answer questions that DNA can’t. For example, unlike DNA, a person’s complement of proteins (or proteome) changes over time, providing important clues about when a person died and their age at death.

“Integrating the MasSpec Pen with Sub-Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization for Rapid Chemical Analysis and Forensic Applications” Analytical Chemistry May 19, 2021 These researchers previously developed a “MasSpec Pen,” a handheld device integrated with a mass spectrometer for direct analysis and molecular profiling of biological samples. In this article, they develop a new version that can quickly and easily detect and measure compounds, including cocaine, oxycodone and explosives, which can be important in forensics investigations.

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Forensic science, getting started with research, steps to creating search strategies.

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Science Librarian

Not sure where to start your research? Below are three common types of sources used in research. Read about what they can contribute to your research and then explore the rest of the guide to learn how to find the sources. Remember the library staff is always here to help you! Contact our  Ask Us  service or  subject librarians  if you have any questions.

Articles  in both print and electronic format provide: 

• the most current source of peer-reviewed information
• focused research, narrow in scope
• literature reviews

Books  in both print and electronic format provide:

• in-depth coverage of a topic, broad in scope and usually historical
• information that is two to three years old by the publication date
• indexes where you can check if the book contains your topic

Websites  must be evaluated for credibility, authority and accuracy before using and provide:

• the most current information on a topic (but not necessarily peer-reviewed)
• obscure, hard-to-find information

Six Steps to Smart Searching

Identify the keywords in your research question..

Keywords are words that carry content and meaning. The keywords in the research  question "What is the feeding range of the blue whale in the Pacific Ocean?" are feeding range, blue whale and Pacific Ocean.

Brainstorm synonyms for your keywords.

Think of words similar to your keywords in case a database doesn't use your original keywords. Synonyms for blue whale are baleen whale and Balaenoptera musculus.

Create Boolean searches using the keywords.

A Boolean search is a search using the words AND, OR and NOT between the keywords. These words have a special function when used in a database.

• The search [blue whale AND Pacific Ocean] will find all of the articles that contain both words. AND makes your search narrower.
• The search [blue whale OR Balaenoptera musculus] will find all articles that contain one word, or the other, or both. OR is placed between synonyms and makes your search broader.
• The search [blue whale NOT Atlantic Ocean] will find all articles containing "blue whale" and exclude the articles that also contain "Atlantic Ocean." NOT excludes articles that you don't want.  

Use the truncation symbol (or wildcard symbol) to search for word variations.

You can avoid doing multiple searches for variations on word endings using the truncation symbol * (the asterisk) in most databases.  Entering the keyword "blue whale*" will look for both blue whale and blue whales.

Add keywords to limit the type of article you retrieve.

If you want a literature review, add "AND review" to your keywords. To find a research study, add "AND study" to your keywords.

Enter your Boolean searches in the Advanced Search of a database.

Always go to the Advanced Search in a database to enter your Boolean searches because it gives you multiple boxes with the Boolean operators between them. If you are using a search with multiple search strings, enter OR within the search boxes and AND between the search boxes, e.g., [blue whale OR Balaenoptera musculus] AND [feeding range OR feeding grounds] AND [Pacific Ocean].

Need help? Then use the library's  Ask Us service. Get help from real people face-to-face, by phone, by email, or by live chat.

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https://www.nist.gov/forensic-science/interdisciplinary-topics/scientific-foundation-reviews

Forensic Science Program

Scientific foundation reviews.

Forensic science plays a crucial role in our criminal justice system. If the right evidence is present, forensic science can help investigators solve crimes, including cases that have long been cold. It can help exclude innocent people from an investigation or exonerate them in cases of wrongful conviction. And it can help juries as they make decisions that have enormous consequences on people’s lives.

But how do we know if we can trust the results of forensic analysis when making important decisions? NIST is helping to answer this question with a series of studies, called "scientific foundation reviews." 

How do we know if forensic methods are reliable?

• Identify the scientific foundations that support and underpin forensic methods
• Document and evaluate the empirical evidence for the reliability of forensic methods
• Explore the capabilities and limitations of forensic methods
• Identify knowledge gaps and areas for future research

Our approach to conducting these studies, also known as technical merit evaluations, is described in NIST Interagency Report NISTIR 8225:  NIST Scientific Foundation Reviews and generally follows these steps:

• A forensic discipline, method, and/or practice is selected for study
• Scientific literature and publicly available information are gathered
• A workshop may be held seeking input from members of the community
• Team of NIST scientists and outside experts meet, discuss, and draft report and supplemental documents
• Information is shared and received at forensic conferences during the deliberation phase
• Draft reports are made available for public comment along with supplemental documents and all public comments received are shared
• After considering public comments, reports are finalized and made available on NIST website

These scientific foundation reviews will be useful in a number of ways. First, they can help establish trust in methods that, when properly applied, rest on solid scientific foundations. Second, they can help forensic practitioners, investigators, courts and other stakeholders understand the capabilities and limitations of forensic methods and help ensure that those methods are used appropriately. Third, by identifying knowledge gaps, they can help provide strategic direction for future research.

These studies will also fulfill a critical need identified in a landmark 2009 report by the National Academy of Sciences. Titled Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward , that report called for “studies establishing the scientific bases demonstrating the validity of forensic methods.” In addition, in 2016, the National Commission on Forensic Science recommended that NIST “conduct independent scientific evaluations of the technical merit of test methods and practices used in forensic science disciplines.” The U.S. Congress appropriated funds for NIST to conduct these reviews starting in 2018.

Each scientific foundation review will result in a report that will be freely available on this website. If you’d like to receive an alert when the reports are published or when related information becomes available, please sign up for our email list .

Final Reports

Digital evidence.

The field of digital forensics is constantly changing as new devices and applications become available. This review documents and evaluates the scientific foundations of digital evidence examination and recommends steps to advance the field. 

Bitemark Analysis

Bitemark analysis is a forensic technique in which marks on the skin of a biting victim are compared with the teeth of a suspected biter. In addition to a review of the scientific literature, this review includes a report from an October 2019 workshop, hosted by the Center for Statistics and Applications in Forensic Science ( CSAFE ), where odontologists, researchers, statisticians, lawyers and other experts addressed scientific questions around bitemark analysis. 

Reports Forthcoming

Dna mixture interpretation.

DNA evidence that contains very small quantities of DNA or a mixture of DNA from several people can be difficult to interpret reliably. This review focuses on the methods that forensic labs use when interpreting these challenging types of DNA evidence. More information about the NIST Interagency Report 8351-DRAFT “DNA Mixture Interpretation: A NIST Scientific Foundation Review” is available on the report's home page .

Firearm Examination

Forensic firearm experts can assess whether a specific gun was used in a crime by examining bullets and cartridge cases under a comparison microscope. This study will document the scientific foundations of that method and assess its reliability by evaluating the scientific literature on error rates.

Footwear Impressions

Performing forensic footwear examinations involves photographing and collecting footwear impressions from a crime scene, analyzing the evidence in the lab and comparing the marks to known footwear impressions on the same or similar substrate. The NIST scientific review on footwear impressions will aim to identify what established scientific laws and principles underpin the forensic science methods and what publicly available empirical data exist to support the methods practitioners use to analyze the evidence.

Communicating Forensic Findings (June 25-26, 2024) - Workshop complete and team in development

FORENSIC SCIENCE FOUNDATION STUDIES PROGRAM MANAGER

• John Butler [email protected] (301) 975-4049

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Science, Evidence, Law, and Justice

The scientific reinvention of forensic science, jonathan j. koehler.

a Northwestern Pritzker School of Law, Chicago, IL 60611

Jennifer L. Mnookin

b Office of the Chancellor, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706

Michael J. Saks

c Sandra Day O’Connor College of Law, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004

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Forensic science is undergoing an evolution in which a long-standing “trust the examiner” focus is being replaced by a “trust the scientific method” focus. This shift, which is in progress and still partial, is critical to ensure that the legal system uses forensic information in an accurate and valid way. In this Perspective, we discuss the ways in which the move to a more empirically grounded scientific culture for the forensic sciences impacts testing, error rate analyses, procedural safeguards, and the reporting of forensic results. However, we caution that the ultimate success of this scientific reinvention likely depends on whether the courts begin to engage with forensic science claims in a more rigorous way.

1. The Transformation of Forensic Science

It would be hard to overstate the importance of the transformation that is underway throughout most of the forensic sciences. For much of the 20th century, evidence from a variety of forensic sciences was routinely admitted in state and federal courts with very little scrutiny of whether it had either substantial validity or a genuine scientific foundation. Experts, usually associated with law enforcement and often without any formal scientific training, testified in court to the validity and outsized accuracy of the techniques and their conclusions. Courts admitted their testimony, generally without limitation or careful scrutiny, based on assurances from the forensic science community that the techniques were accurate, effective, and broadly accepted as valid. Assertions unsupported by empirical validation sufficed. The scientific authority of forensic science testimony rarely faced significant challenge from the opposing party, and the occasional challenges that were offered were nearly always unsuccessful.

The story began to change when DNA evidence emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. After initial breathless enthusiasm by courts about this transformative new identification technique, highly credentialed scientists identified meaningful concerns regarding how to “translate” laboratory DNA assessments for courtroom use. Several judges excluded DNA evidence to ensure adequate vetting by the scientific community. In the 1990s, scientists from various core disciplines including genetics, statistics, and psychology engaged in lively and sometimes contentious debates in peer-reviewed, scientific journals about the forensic use of DNA profiling, including such matters as population genetics, error rates, standards for defining a DNA match, and communicating the evidentiary meaning of a match. Those debates, and two DNA reports issued by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), impacted the way DNA evidence was treated in court, creating a greater focus on scientific validity than existed for prior forensic techniques. Also in the 1990s, the Supreme Court decided a trio of critical cases on the use of scientific and other expert evidence in the courts. These cases emphasized that the Federal Rules of Evidence gave judges the responsibility to engage in judicial “gatekeeping” to determine whether that scientific and expert evidence was sufficiently reliable and valid to be admitted in court ( 1 – 3 ).

By the early part of the 21st century, a shift to a more scientific paradigm for the forensic sciences was observable, though still in its infancy ( 4 ). This shift represented a move from a framework of “trusting the examiner” to “trusting the method.” Rather than relying on untested foundational assumptions, and assurances from witnesses that their training and experience makes their confident conclusions accurate and trustworthy, legal scholars, scientists, and some forensic practitioners began endorsing a more scientific model that prioritizes common and detailed protocols, empirical testing, and more moderate, data-driven knowledge claims. Some have hinted that a scientific paradigm shift has already occurred ( 5 , 6 ); others see little evidence of a shift ( 7 ). Most likely, the transformation remains a work in progress: Notable progress has been made on some fronts, but significant concerns remain ( 8 ).

In some areas, when scientific reviews established that available empirical science did not support experts’ claims, entire subfields of forensic science that had contributed to criminal convictions for decades ceased (e.g., bullet lead analysis) or ceased using discredited principles (e.g., fire and arson analysis). In other areas, scrutiny led to reduced credibility and a shift away from exaggerated claims (e.g., microscopic hair analysis). However, other fields, such as bitemark identification, continued despite adverse scientific reviews ( 9 ).

Some forensic subfields, such as single-source DNA identification, survived scientific scrutiny quite well. Latent fingerprint identification, which has been scrutinized more than most other forms of pattern identification evidence, has survived as well, although it has scaled back on its claims in recognition of the role that human factors and subjectivity play in reaching conclusions ( 10 ). Firearms evidence is gaining attention from the scientific community, and weaknesses in its scientific foundation and reporting traditions have been identified ( 11 ).

In what follows, we discuss how the move to a more empirically grounded scientific culture in the forensic sciences impacts testing, error rate analyses, procedural safeguards, and the reporting of results. Whereas there can be no debate that forensic science claims must be grounded in both relevant testing and data, legitimate open questions remain about how best to make the forensic sciences “scientific.” How should errors and mistakes by forensic practitioners be defined and counted? How should conclusions be reported? These questions are currently being discussed and debated by the scientific community. Responsibility for implementing recommendations from the scientific community ultimately rests with the courts. Unfortunately, few courts have undertaken serious gatekeeping of forensic science evidence. We discuss this problem and conclude by examining how to build on institutional and structural opportunities to assure that this vital reinvention of forensic science proceeds.

The shift to a truly scientific framework in the forensic sciences requires attention to empirical testing of the techniques and methods employed under realistic conditions. As PCAST ( 12 ) notes, “Scientific validity and reliability require that a method has been subjected to empirical testing, under conditions appropriate to its intended use, that provides valid estimates of how often the method reaches an incorrect conclusion” (p. 27 and p. 118). Empirical testing is a sine qua non for moving from a “trust the examiner” to a “trust the methods” ethos.

Although scientifically-minded people understand the importance of empirical testing in any scientific endeavor, calls to test the accuracy of forensic science claims are relatively recent. For most of the 20th century, few asked forensic scientists to provide empirical proof that they could do what they claimed. The training, knowledge, and experience of the examiner, coupled with assurances that the method used was generally accepted in the forensic community, were deemed sufficient to admit nearly every forensic science that was proffered in court in the 20th century. Once admitted, forensic scientists commonly offered conclusions with 100% confidence and claimed, with little evidence, a 0% error rate ( 13 ). Although some optional forms of certification existed, little attention was paid to whether, or how, forensic examiners should be required to pass proficiency tests or what those tests should include. Nor did judges require any form of testing or certification as a prerequisite to allowing forensic testimony.

2.1. History.

Most forensic sciences were raised, if not always born, in the world of law enforcement for the purpose of helping police identify criminals. The granddaddy of forensic identification, anthropometry was invented by Alphonse Bertillon in the Paris Prefecture of Police in the 1880s. This technique involved making systematic measurements of bodies of prisoners to assist with their identification at a later date if they were using aliases ( 14 ). Fingerprints soon proved to be a more useful means of identifying criminals, and courts eagerly admitted this evidence without serious inquiry into the scientific underpinnings of the claim that experts could accurately identify the source of partial prints recovered from crime scenes. At no point did the fingerprinting method face the rough-and-tumble questioning of a scientific discipline where everything is questioned and tested, progress is incremental, and cautious, tentative claims are the norm. Over time, other forensic science techniques were invented and introduced on the basis of assurances from practitioners rather than persuasive evidence from rigorous scientific tests.

2.1.1. DNA evidence.

When DNA technology burst onto the legal landscape in the late 1980s—a technology that, unlike most forensic disciplines that came before it, derived from basic scientific disciplines—the broader scientific community took notice. Initially, this impressive technology was received with great enthusiasm. But questions about its courtroom use soon emerged. In People v. Castro ( 15 ), through the involvement of talented defense counsel and distinguished scientists as defense experts, substantial concerns about how laboratory DNA science was being “translated” for courtroom use gained prominence ( 16 ). In the wake of Castro and several cases that followed, the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences convened a blue-ribbon committee to examine DNA evidence, and a flurry of additional scientific activity ensued. Geneticists, statisticians, evolutionary biologists, psychologists, and others debated, tested, and wrote about various aspects of this new technique in prestigious scientific journals. It was not forensic science business as usual; this time there would be no deference to authority or to the say-so of a narrowly defined forensic community.

The National Research Council (NRC) ended up writing two reports, four years apart, about DNA evidence ( 17 [NRC I] and 18 [NRC II]). We do not focus on the reports as a whole but limit our attention to their respective treatments of testing in the forensic sciences.

Two types of proficiency tests were needed to legitimate the use of DNA profiling in court. One type of test would address issues that were internal to the forensic sciences. These tests address matters such as whether examiners can follow the protocols for a particular technique and whether different examiners and different laboratories obtain identical (or nearly identical) results on identical samples. A second type of test focused more on matters external to the day-to-day workings of forensic science analyses, such as helping triers of fact assign appropriate weight to DNA evidence. This goal is best accomplished through another type of proficiency test designed specifically to identify accuracy and error rates under various casework-like conditions ( 19 ). As NRC I noted, “Interpretation of DNA typing results depends not only on population genetics, but also on laboratory error” ( 17 , p. 88). This report referenced the results of a DNA proficiency test conducted a few years earlier that identified a false positive error rate of 2%. Noting that some of the early proficiency tests were “less than ideal,” NRC I stressed that for DNA typing, “laboratory error rates must be continually estimated in blind proficiency testing and must be disclosed to juries” ( 17 , p. 89).

This testing recommendation was largely ignored by the forensic science community and the courts. Moreover, some influential forensic science voices actively counseled against error rate testing on the specious grounds that error rates are irrelevant to individual cases because they change over time (testimony from a leading FBI scientist in United States v. Llera Plaza ( 20 , p. 510). At trial, prosecutors argued that the source opinions of DNA examiners were reliable. With few exceptions, trial judges gave little weight to defense arguments that DNA evidence should be limited or excluded when error rate tests had not been performed.

NRC II offered a different perspective on tests designed to measure laboratory error rates than that taken by NRC I. NRC II offered four arguments against performing such tests: 1) error rates are unknowable because they are always in flux, 2) error rates never translate directly into an estimate of error for a given case because each “particular case depends on many variables,” 3) general error rate estimates “penalize the better laboratories,” and 4) an “unrealistically large number of proficiency trials” would be required to obtain reliable error rate estimates ( 18 , p. 85–86). Although these arguments were widely rebutted ( 21 – 23 ), this report stifled calls for empirical testing and made it difficult for defense attorneys to argue that the reliability of any proffered forensic science method is unknowable without such data.

Fourteen years later, yet another National Research Council report was issued ( 24 [NAS]). This report examined a variety of non-DNA forensic science disciplines (latent prints, shoeprints, toolmarks, hair, etc.) and concluded that nearly all had failed to test their fundamental premises and claims. According to NAS, testing requires an “assessment of the accuracy of the conclusions from forensic analyses and the estimation of relevant error rates” ( 24 , p. 122). A follow-up report by the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) argued even more forcefully for empirical error rate testing programs: “Without appropriate estimates of accuracy, an examiner’s statement that two samples are similar—or even indistinguishable—is scientifically meaningless: it has no probative value, and considerable potential for prejudicial impact” ( 12 , p. 6).

We thus see a variety of particularized approaches to proficiency testing in the forensic sciences across blue-ribbon analyses of the topics. Three of the four reports noted above emphasized the importance of proficiency testing and the development of empirically grounded error rates. Although there are challenges to developing meaningful error rates, the program of proficiency testing called for in the PCAST and various NAS reports is an indispensable part of the evolving scientific framework in the forensic sciences. Error rate proficiency tests have now been conducted with forensic examiners in various subfields including latent prints ( 25 , 26 ), firearms and toolmarks ( 27 , 28 ), and footwear ( 29 ). These studies are important steps forward and have prompted interest in how error rates should be computed and reported. A consensus has not yet emerged. Far from signaling a discipline in disarray, ongoing research and sophisticated debates depict a field that is undergoing a scientific transformation.

2.2. Evolving Error Rate Studies.

In the late 1900s, proficiency testing in the forensic sciences focused mainly on the issue of examiner competence. Could the examiner conduct a proper analysis using simple exemplars, and did the conclusions reached by different examiners agree? To the extent error rates were computed from these proficiency tests, it was clear that those rates should be considered with a grain of salt. The study participants were usually volunteers who knew that they were being tested and who may or may not have collaborated with others or otherwise examined the test samples differently than they treat casework samples. The test providers often were not disinterested parties, and the samples used were less challenging than many that appear in actual cases. Although some of these testing problems remain, efforts have been made in recent years to employ realistic samples and to blind examiners to the fact that they are working with test samples rather than casework samples ( 30 , 31 ).

2.3. Inconclusives.

A focus on testing and accuracy raises important correlative questions: Precisely what counts as an error and how should error rates be computed? There is no single “correct” error rate ( 32 , 33 ). False-positive error rates, false-negative error rates, and false discovery rates are all different, legitimate error rates. But even when there is agreement about which error rate is of interest, scientists might not agree about what “counts” as an attempt (or trial) and what “counts” as an error. If examiners always reached either an identification conclusion (i.e., that two patterns derive from the same source) or an exclusion (i.e., they come from different sources) for all sample pairs in a test situation, it would be a simple matter to compute, say, a false-positive error rate. It would be the number of times the examiner reached a “same source” conclusion divided by the number of sample pairs that were known to have been produced by a different source.

But forensic examiners do not always reach a firm binary source decision. Depending on the subfield, they might reach more limited judgments, such as leaning toward identification, high degree of association, association of class characteristics, limited association of class characteristics, inconclusive, indications of nonassociation, and leaning toward exclusion. * We discuss the wisdom of categorical conclusions later. For now, we simply note that error rate computations are not straightforward when an examiner reaches a conclusion other than identification or exclusion for a given paired comparison. Because all pairwise samples are, as a matter of ground truth, either produced by a common source (corresponding to a conclusion of identification) or by different sources (corresponding to a conclusion of exclusion), any conclusion other than identification or exclusion cannot be factually correct. This raises the question: Should conclusions other than identification or exclusion be classified as errors? If not, should these comparisons be included in the error rate denominator?

Some scholars have argued that under particular circumstances, uncertain conclusions (e.g., “inconclusive”) should be scored as correct or incorrect and should be included in error rate computations ( 34 ). According to this argument, inconclusives should be scored as errors when the available information—as judged by qualified experts or by the set of tested examiners themselves in aggregate—suggests that one of the two conclusive decisions could in fact be reached by a competent examiner. Dror ( 35 , pp. 1036–1037) goes so far as to say that, even when an examiner correctly concludes that two samples came from the same source, that decision should be scored as a false-positive error when a panel of experts or group of other examinees regard the comparison to be inconclusive.

Others have argued that inconclusives should not be scored as errors or counted in error rate computations on grounds that when examiners fail to offer a conclusive decision, they are neither wrong nor right because they have not made a claim about the underlying state of nature ( 36 , 37 ). According to this view, neither a panel of independent experts nor a wisdom-of-the-crowd approach provides a dependable gold standard for ascertaining when a pairwise comparison should be deemed inconclusive ( 38 ). Indeed, experts are most likely to disagree with one another on hard cases which, of course, are also the cases where examiners will be tempted to offer an inconclusive decision.

Resolution of this debate is complicated by the practical reality that forensic scientists might be motivated to minimize their reported error rates. If inconclusives are not treated as errors, then examiners might be incentivized to minimize their reported error rates in known test situations by deeming all but the most obvious comparisons inconclusive, even if they might reach a definitive conclusion about many or even most of those same stimuli in real-world casework. Conversely, if inconclusives are treated as errors, examiners might be incentivized to reach conclusions on even the most difficult cases and thereby increase the risk that innocent people are convicted based on faulty forensic science. Misuse of the inconclusive category is likely to be reduced when blind testing is broadly implemented and when examiners provide weight-of-evidence testimony rather than source conclusion testimony. This very debate, and the sophistication of the engagement with this set of questions about measuring error, is a welcome development.

3. Procedural Reforms

For more than a century, the forensic science enterprise in the United States has been controlled and often staffed by law enforcement agencies. This may not be surprising given that police are responsible for investigating crimes, and forensic scientists have the ability to collect and examine evidence in a wide range of cases. But forensic science should not be the exclusive tool of law enforcement for several reasons. First, for the adversary system to work as intended, all parties—including criminal defendants—need to have equal access to forensic science resources. Second, the scientific status of the forensic sciences is compromised by its close association with one side. If crime laboratories are beholden to the needs of law enforcement, they might be discouraged from pursuing scientific investigations that are not aligned with the interests of law enforcement ( 24 , pp. 78–79; 39 , p. 775). Relatedly, if forensic scientists see themselves as working in partnership with police and prosecutors, subtle contextual and cognitive biases might creep into their work at various stages.

3.1. Adversarial Allegiance.

There has long been concern that expert witnesses who are retained by one side or the other in legal cases will, intentionally or unintentionally, slant their conclusions and testimony in favor of the party retaining them ( 40 ). Psychologists theorize that experts see themselves as part of a team and often develop a so-called “myside bias” ( 41 ) or “adversarial allegiance” to their team and teammates ( 42 ). In one controlled experiment, 108 forensic psychologists evaluated the risk posed by certain sex offenders at the request of either the prosecution or the defense. After reviewing and scoring four case files using standard risk-assessment instruments, the psychologists who thought that they had been hired by the prosecution viewed the offenders as posing greater risks than did the psychologists who thought that they had been hired by the defense ( 43 ).

The tendency to favor one’s own side in an adversarial setting is one of many demonstrated psychological influences (or biases) on human judgment and decision. These biases may be perceptual, cognitive, or motivational in nature. Perceptual biases commonly refer to situations in which a person’s expectations, beliefs, or preferences affect their processing of visual stimuli ( 44 ). For example, a latent print examiner might “see” a point of similarity between two prints after having noted several other points of similarity between the prints, whereas another examiner—or even the same examiner—might not see the similarity absent an expectation that the two prints share a common source. Cognitive biases refer to systematic distortions in thinking that occur when people are processing information. Confirmation bias is a well-known cognitive bias in which people seek, interpret, and recall information in ways that tend to confirm their prior beliefs ( 45 ). Motivational biases, such as motivated reasoning, refer to the phenomenon in which our wishes distort our interpretations of events ( 46 ). The significance of these overlapping biases for forensic science work is that they might affect what examiners choose to look at, what they see when they look, and the conclusions that they reach about what they have seen.

Research shows that irrelevant contextual, cognitive, and motivational factors can alter the judgments and decisions of forensic scientists in many areas, including fingerprint ( 47 ), handwriting ( 48 ), firearms ( 49 ), DNA ( 50 ), pathology ( 51 ), forensic anthropology ( 52 ), digital forensics ( 53 ), bloodstain pattern ( 54 ), and forensic odontology ( 55 ). The takeaway point of these studies is not that forensic science evidence is fatally flawed. The point is that forensic scientists, like other scientists ( 56 , 57 ), are subject to potentially significant biases that should be examined empirically and minimized where possible.

3.3. Reforms to Minimize Bias.

Despite the ubiquity of subtle biases in human judgments ( 58 ), people do not readily recognize that their own judgments and decisions could be biased ( 59 ). Unsurprisingly, this reluctance has been observed in the forensic science community. When a small group of psychologists and forensic scientists debated the risk of bias in forensic judgment in a scientific journal in the late 1990s, some forensic scientists argued that their disciplines were objective (hence unbiased) and that potentially biasing information therefore need not be withheld from examiners ( 60 ). Two decades later, a survey of 403 forensic scientists suggested that this view may still be common. Most of the survey respondents did not think that their own judgments were influenced by cognitive bias, and most did not agree that examiners in their domain “should be shielded from irrelevant contextual information” ( 61 , p. 455). Regardless of whether practicing forensic scientists support efforts to guard against unwanted influences, it is incumbent on the broader scientific community to continue researching potential sources of bias and to continue proposing reforms designed to blunt the impact of bias on forensic judgments.

Perhaps the most important reform is blind testing and blind review. Training in most scientific fields includes learning how scientific judgments and choices might be tainted by subtle psychological forces. This problem is best addressed in human research by blinding investigators and participants alike to the participants’ condition (e.g., placebo or treatment). Similarly, in fields that rely heavily on subjective judgments—as many pattern-matching forensic sciences do—it would seem important to prevent analysts from receiving extraneous information that could affect their judgments about the patterns they analyze. In forensic science, blind analysis requires an administrator or case manager to provide examiners with case information on a need-to-know basis. Trace samples recovered from crime scenes (i.e., unknown samples) should be examined thoroughly prior to the introduction of reference samples (i.e., known samples). Knowledge about features of known samples, like knowledge about other aspects of the case, could inadvertently cause an examiner to see features in the unknown sample that are not there or fail to see features that are there ( 17 ).

Similar precautions should be taken for verifiers, i.e., examiners who are called on to provide a second opinion. These examiners should be unaware of their role as verifier of the conclusions offered by another examiner. Such knowledge could create a confirmation bias that affects the verifier’s forensic perceptions and judgments.

Scientists have recommended various blinding procedures for the forensic sciences. These include sequential unmasking ( 62 ), case manager models ( 63 ), and evidence line-ups ( 64 ). Sequential unmasking minimizes bias by blinding examiners to information about known samples until after the examiners have completed an initial review of the unknown samples. Information related to the known samples that is required for the examiner to draw additional conclusions is “unmasked” as needed. Whereas separate analyses of unknown and known samples will generally work well for DNA and fingerprint analysis, a modified version of this procedure is needed for fields such as firearms and handwriting where the known sample provides information needed for a proper examination of the unknown sample. Sequential unmasking has been implemented on occasion in the United States ( 65 ) and is employed as a working standard for fingerprint and DNA evidence at the Netherlands Forensic Institute and at the Dutch National Police for DNA ( 66 ). Recently, extensions of this technique have been proposed ( 67 , 68 ).

The case manager method minimizes bias by assigning a forensic “manager” to interact with investigators and to participate in decisions related to what is tested and how a “blind” examiner conducts those tests. The manager then tells an examiner what to do without revealing other case-relevant (or potentially biasing) information. In evidence line-ups, known reference samples that are not the source of the unknown sample are provided to the examiner at the comparison stage along with a reference sample from the suspected source of the unknown. In the context of an eyewitness lineup, this “filler-control procedure” ( 69 ) purportedly reduces errors that incriminate innocent suspects by spreading the errors among a set of fillers as well as the innocent suspects ( 70 ). This technique, which could be costly to implement broadly ( 69 ), may reduce false positive errors in forensic contexts as well ( 71 ).

Growing attention to bias-reducing reforms, though implemented only to a limited degree thus far, suggests that the forensic sciences are beginning to recognize that examiners may be influenced by irrelevant contextual knowledge. Behavioral science research holds the key to identifying procedural guardrails that should be erected to reduce unintentional bias.

4. Examiners’ Conclusions and Reporting

4.1. categorical reporting..

Forensic scientists in many subfields offer one of three categorical conclusions when comparing an unknown (questioned) sample to a known (reference) sample: exclusion (the paired samples come from different sources), individualization (the paired samples come from the same source), or inconclusive (insufficient basis for excluding or individualizing). Exclusions arise when an examiner determines that there are important identifiable features in one of the samples that are not present in the other sample. That determination is left to the judgment of the individual examiner ( 72 ). When examiners feel that they lack sufficient evidence that two samples come from different sources, they must decide whether there is enough evidence to conclude that the pair come from the same source. An individualization—sometimes referred to as an identification—is a conclusion that a particular item or person is the one and only possible source of an unknown item of forensic evidence. † Despite the long history of reaching individualization conclusions in most forensic sciences, it is an unscientific practice that should be abandoned.

4.2. Individualizations Are Not Scientific.

Individualization has long been central to the forensic science enterprise. ‡ Examiners make individualizations in most of their casework ( 73 ). Until recently, such testimony was routinely offered with “100% certainty” § and assurances of a 0% error rate. ¶ Although vestiges of this type of hyperbole remain, several forensic professional associations now warn their members not to engage in these practices.

However, the individualization claims themselves are nearly as problematic from a scientific standpoint as the exaggerated ways in which those claims are sometimes made. Individualization claims exaggerate what the underlying science can reveal ( 7 , 74 – 76 ). A scientist cannot determine that there is no chance that any object other than a particular known sample could be the source of an unknown sample simply because the known and unknown samples share many features ( 77 ). When forensic scientists offer individualization conclusions, they are merely offering personal speculation that markings on one of the samples that are not shared by the other sample are unimportant for source determination purposes and that they believe that the samples show sufficient similarity to conclude that they share a common source.

4.3. Abandon Source Opinions and Source Probabilities.

The individualization problem cannot be solved by adding a caveat that an individualization is a personal opinion rather than a scientific statement or that it is made to “a reasonable degree of scientific certainty,” as had become common in recent years ( 78 ). An examiner who offers such an opinion would still be engaged in an unwarranted “leap of faith” ( 76 ). Moreover, empirical research shows that such caveats have little impact on the weight that people assign to the forensic testimony ( 79 , 80 ).

Furthermore, if individualization testimony is abandoned, it should not be replaced by a statement that provides an estimate of the probability that the samples in question were produced by a common source. First, most forensic disciplines do not have extensive data on the frequency with which the various markings appear in various populations or statistical models that reveal the frequency with which particular markings appear in particular combinations. Therefore, no scientific basis exists for estimating the chance that observed similarities between items were merely coincidental. Second, even in disciplines where such data have been collected (e.g., DNA) or are being collected (e.g., fingerprints), it would still be inappropriate to use those data to provide source probability estimates. According to Bayesian logic, these estimates require the examiner to take account of the prior probability that the known source is the actual source of the unknown sample before reaching a conclusion about the source probability in question. The prior probability is informed by a variety of nonforensic considerations, including the existence and strength of other evidence in the case that the forensic scientist should not and likely would not know. Even when the forensic scientist does know the nonforensic facts of a case, that knowledge and its corresponding impact on the forensic scientist’s beliefs are not relevant at trial. Instead, jurors’ own prior beliefs about the source of the forensic evidence, based on other evidence in the case, should inform their source probability estimates.

4.4. Provide Weight of the Evidence.

How then should forensic examiners provide information to a factfinder? There is broad agreement in the scientific community that forensic scientists can and should confine their testimony to providing information pertinent to the weight of the forensic evidence ( 81 , 82 ). The question to be addressed is how much support do the results of the forensic analysis provide for the proposition that the unknown and known samples share a common source? Note that this is a different question from how likely it is that the two samples share a common source. Triers of fact should make the latter judgment for themselves by updating their initial beliefs about the common source hypothesis with the additional weight provided by the results of the forensic analysis.

4.4.1. Likelihood ratios.

There is also an emerging consensus in the scientific and statistical communities that likelihood ratios (LRs) are the most appropriate tool for identifying the strength of forensic evidence ( 10 , 83 – 85 ). # In its most common form, the LR measures the strength of support that the forensic findings provide for the hypothesis that two samples share a common source relative to the alternative hypothesis that the two samples do not share a common source. If E denotes the evidence from the forensic analysis and CS denotes the hypothesis that the two samples share a common source, then the LR is P(E|CS)/P(E|-CS). In words, the LR is the probability of obtaining this forensic evidence if the two samples came from a common source divided by the probability of obtaining this evidence if the two samples did not come from a common source.

At an abstract level, the LR is an appealing way to report forensic science evidence. In practice, however, it raises a set of challenges. Aside from a relative dearth of data, a significant obstacle to employing LRs to assess evidentiary weight is that it often is not obvious what values to use for the LR numerator and denominator. Even when LRs are computed using reliable data, human judgment usually plays a significant role. For example, reasonable people might disagree about the size and composition of the reference population used to inform the denominator of the LR. Consequently, the size of the LR may vary, sometimes by orders of magnitude.

Choices related to how to handle the risk of human error can also affect the magnitude of the LR. When the risk of such errors is ignored, LRs may become astronomically large. But when estimates of the rates at which recording errors, mislabeling errors, and sample mix-ups are incorporated into LR computations, the resultant LRs will typically be smaller ( 86 ). Whether the risk of error is expressly included in the LR computation or provided to jurors in some other way, this risk is always present, and it should place an upper limit on the weight assigned to the forensic evidence.

Misinterpretation poses another obstacle to employing LRs to describe the strength of forensic evidence ( 87 ). Studies show that people commonly transpose conditional probabilities and thereby end up treating LRs as posterior odds ratios ( 88 ). That is, rather than using LRs as a measure of the weight of evidence, people mistakenly treat LRs as if they directly answer the question, “What are the odds that these two samples come from a common source?” The error of confusing LRs with posterior odds ratios is committed by laypeople, judges, attorneys, and even the experts who present this evidence at trial.

4.4.2. Verbal scales.

Some scholars have proposed using verbal scales and qualitative expressions to convey forensic conclusions. For example, a popular scale in Europe describes LRs < 10 as providing slight support/limited support for the source proposition, LRs between 10 and 100 as providing moderate support, LRs between 100 and 1,000 as providing moderately strong support, etc. ( 83 , p. 64). This well-intentioned idea should not be implemented absent empirical evidence that people give appropriate weight to the evidence that is described using those qualitative terms. For example, if studies show that people treat, say, a 10,000:1 LR as if it were a 100:1 LR when the term “more likely” is used, then a different qualitative phrase is needed. It is not appropriate to simply assign verbal labels to LRs without knowing how people interpret those labels. Preliminary research suggests that some verbal scale expressions are treated roughly in accordance with their corresponding LRs, but some are not ( 89 ).

Even as the forensic sciences continue to evolve, it will likely take years before conclusory individualizations are replaced by more scientifically justifiable weight-of-evidence measures such as LRs, verbal scales, or some other probabilistic indicator. A recent survey of 301 fingerprint examiners found that 98% of respondents report categorically rather than probabilistically and that a large majority regard probabilistic reporting to be inappropriate ( 90 ). To the extent that examiners in other forensic fields hold similar beliefs—and that prosecutors persuade judges that categorical reporting serves the interests of justice—change may be slow in coming. Further research on how factfinders hear and receive evidence must continue to be a priority.

What role have the courts played in improving the scientific quality of forensic science? How can the courts do better? For centuries, courts have appreciated both the value and risk of inviting expert witnesses to help factfinders find their way to the truth of disputed facts. Where specialized knowledge can cast useful light, it would be foolish to disregard it. On the other hand, parties in our adversarial legal system are motivated to present experts only when their testimony will advance the advocate’s case, regardless of whether their words illuminate underlying truths.

Courts and other rulemaking bodies have developed various legal tests calculated to facilitate the screening of expert evidence. One hundred years ago, in Frye v. United States ( 91 ), a court turned to the intellectual market for guidance. Only those propositions and techniques that had “gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs” would be admissible ( 91 , p. 1014). The Frye test, which has its merits, also exposed the courts to the substantial risk that those who stood to benefit most from the admission of certain types of expert evidence might be called upon to vouch for questionable evidence if the “particular field” was defined too narrowly. Over subsequent decades, judges variously employed the Frye test, related tests, and, often, no test at all to screen experts, including forensic science experts. As noted earlier, many different types of forensic science were admitted based simply on the say-so of the few who practiced the technique at issue.

In 1993, the US Supreme Court held that the Federal Rules of Evidence (promulgated in 1975) did not incorporate Frye’s general acceptance test. Instead, judges must determine whether the methods used by proffered experts were reliable and valid, although the Court held that “general acceptance” could be one element of that inquiry. According to the Court, the “overarching subject” of “[t]he inquiry envisioned by Rule 702 … is the scientific validity and thus the evidentiary relevance and reliability—of the principles that underlie a proposed submission” ( 1 pp. 594–595). Daubert’s focus on scientific validity is consistent with efforts to increase a scientific approach within the forensic sciences. However, judges may not have the scientific training necessary to know whether “the principles that underlie a proposed submission” have been adequately tested and validated.

Whether or not this point can serve as explanation or excuse, the fact is that when called on to evaluate the proffers of forensic science, courts have not done well. As NAS observed, “Forensic science professionals have yet to establish either the validity of their approach or the accuracy of their conclusions, and the courts have been utterly ineffective in addressing this problem” ( 24 , p. 53). Rather than engage with the underlying science, most trial judges simply opted to follow past practice and allow proffered forensic science evidence to reach the jury. In the wake of this NAS report, numerous courts made modest gestures toward a more engaged assessment of forensic pattern evidence, limiting it around the edges (i.e., prohibiting claims of zero error rate or 100% certainty) or noting the lack of empirical support with surprise. But nearly all forensic science pattern evidence continued to be admitted.

PCAST sought to help the courts fix this problem by providing specific guidance to the courts for assessing the validity of feature-matching forensic science evidence (e.g., DNA, hair, fingerprints, firearms, toolmarks, and tire tracks). Not surprisingly, the guidance focused on rigorous empirical testing and the estimation of accuracy and error rates for the different methods.

Earlier we noted that several fields of forensic science—including bullet lead comparison, microscopic hair identification, and arson indicators—have been transformed or abolished following serious scientific reviews. Notably, the judicial system did not initiate, and barely even contributed to, these transformations. The courts have not led. Indeed, the courts have often not even followed, as some of these unvalidated techniques continue to be admitted.

Whether the courts will ultimately choose to a) follow the mandates of Daubert and the guidance provided by PCAST, or b) remain “utterly ineffective” at holding the forensic sciences scientifically accountable for their claims, is not yet clear. Although it has been business as usual in most post-PCAST cases, there are some signs of more full-throated, robust engagement, and even occasional exclusions [see, e.g., People of Illinois v. Winfield ( 92 ), excluding firearms evidence].

Thanks to Daubert, Federal Rule of Evidence 702, the 2009 NAS report and the 2016 PCAST report, judges indisputably have both the authority and the tools to insist that forensic evidence has an adequate scientific foundation. But they have only rarely availed themselves of this power. As the primary consumers of forensic science evidence, the courts can hold the forensic science community’s feet to the fire by requiring that expert testimony is backed by “sufficient facts or data” ( 93 ), accompanied by relevant error rates from methodologically sound studies, and presented without exaggeration ( 94 ).

6. Successes and Challenges

The scientific reinvention of forensic science is not an all or nothing concept. Rather, it is a process of gradual and continuing change. The most important element of change currently under way in forensic science is a recognition that a framework of trusting the examiner must give way to one that trusts the empirical science. Although the training, knowledge, and experience of the examiner are important, they will not be enough to sustain the forensic enterprise going forward. Forensic science is becoming an actual science: “The debate and rigor of academic science is now influencing much of forensic science and that is the most significant change from the past” ( 95 ).

Empirical testing has proceeded rapidly in some disciplines, and efforts are under way to measure sample difficulty and to identify statistical models that capture the probative value of forensic evidence. Extreme and unsupportable claims (e.g., 0% error rate and 100% certainty), once widespread, have been rejected by numerous scientific authorities and forensic science associations. Techniques that relied on false assumptions have exited the stage, and others whose validity appears doubtful seem to be headed toward the graveyard of unsupported science as well.

Perhaps the most important institutional step forward thus far has been the creation of national scientific bodies whose purpose is to increase the scientific rigor of the various forensic fields. The Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSACs)—a complex of interconnected, multispecialty entities operating mainly under the auspices of the National Institute of Standards and Technology—were established in 2014 to do the heavy lifting. These committees, which are composed of more than 800 crime lab examiners, administrators, conventional scientists, and legal experts, create standards which, when fully developed, approved, and published, are available for adoption by individual crime labs. “OSAC-approved standards must have strong scientific foundations so that the methods that practitioners employ are scientifically valid, and the resulting claims are trustworthy” ( 96 ). As of March 2023, there are 97 published standards and 37 proposed for an array of different forensic disciplines. These developments count as successes. Institutions have been built and staffed, and a process is underway.

On the other hand, it is not obvious that the emerging OSAC standards go far enough in terms of ensuring that examiners’ methods are valid and that their claims are trustworthy. Rather than squarely addressing major challenges such as the individualization problem discussed above, many of the standards merely nibble around the less controversial edges. Even if the OSACs do decide to take on the most important forensic challenges, it is crucial that the standards they create be supported by an empirical foundation. But many accepted that forensic techniques remain underresearched. The scientific evolution that we have described would benefit greatly from an overarching research agenda that coordinates both the needs of standards development and the research that gets funded. For example, a gap analysis would reveal the distance between what is believed (assumed) and what has been empirically validated. Research should be aimed at filling the discovered gaps. Unfortunately, as of 2015, a report on the funding of forensic science research found that “such a research agenda has not yet been developed” ( 97 , p. 14). To be sure, such assessments and gap analyses have begun, but they are incomplete and have yet to receive much attention from practitioners or courts.

Even if the OSACs can address these issues, a practical problem remains: The OSACs lack enforcement power. Individual crime labs are free to adopt OSAC standards as they please. Even those labs that do endorse OSAC guidelines may decide to do so only nominally and then fail to incorporate them into day-to-day work.

The solution to this practical problem lies with the courts: If judges refused to admit evidence produced by laboratories that could not demonstrate how, exactly, they have incorporated OSAC guidelines and other scientific recommendations into their work, compliance would be guaranteed. More generally, if judges took seriously their duties under the Daubert line of cases (and state equivalents) and refused to admit insufficiently validated claims, the forensic sciences would adopt scientific practices more quickly and completely. Unfortunately, few courts have been so bold. The scientific advances that have been made are largely due to initiatives by the forensic fields themselves or by the wider scientific community. However, given that most forensic disciplines have ignored calls from the broader scientific community to replace individualizations with a more appropriate weight-of-evidence measure, a push from outside the fields themselves is needed.

In short, although a scientific reinvention of the forensic sciences is underway, its ultimate success is not assured. Its success depends on consistent attention to empirical validation of methods and conclusions and that in turn requires institutional structures that can help make that focus meaningful in courts of law. One such institutional structure was proposed by the NAS report. This report called for the creation of a new federal agency that focused on forensic science. Among other things, this agency, which would operate independently of law enforcement or any other potentially interested party, would be responsible for establishing and enforcing scientific practices in the forensic sciences. Ultimately, however, such an independent agency was not created.

Courts of law provide an alternative institutional structure for advancing the forensic sciences. Although the courts may not seem like an obvious force for advancing a scientific agenda, the expert evidence gate-keeping duties imposed on trial judges by Daubert and the relevant Federal Rule of Evidence, if faithfully followed, will promote a scientific focus and culture within the forensic sciences. To be sure, the courts’ record on this front does not warrant much optimism. But the scientific paradigm is young and there are signs of hope and progress. The future of forensic science is ours to choose.

Author contributions

J.J.K., J.L.M., and M.J.S. wrote the paper.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interest.

This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.

* Similarly, examiners are often permitted to conclude that samples are “unsuitable” or “insufficient” for reaching any conclusion.

† For shoeprint evidence, “An identification means the shoe positively made the questioned impression and no other shoe in the world could have made that particular impression” ( 98 , p. 347).

‡ ”The concept of individualization is clearly central to the consideration of physical evidence. Our belief that uniqueness is both attainable and existent is central to our work as forensic scientists” ( 99 , p. 123).

§ ”Latent fingerprint identifications are subject to a standard of 100% certainty” ( 100 , p. 8).

¶ Responding to a question by 60-Minutes interviewer Leslie Stahl, Stephen Meagher, the former head of the FBI’s latent print unit, said that the chance that a reported fingerprint match is in error is “zero” ( 101 ).

# Log-LRs provide equally rigorous measures of probative value.

Data, Materials, and Software Availability