how to write a bibliography for thesis

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Adapted from American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Formatting:

• Italicize the title
• Identify whether source is doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the title

See Ch. 10 pp. 313-352 of APA Manual for more examples and formatting rules

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How to Write a Bibliography in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• APA Bibliography
• How to Create One
• Why You Need It

Sample Bibliography

An APA format bibliography lists all of the sources that might be used in a paper. A bibliography can be a great tool to help you keep track of information during the research and writing process. In some cases, your instructor may require you to include a bibliography as part of your assignment.

At a Glance

A well-written APA format bibliography can help you keep track of information and sources as you research and write your psychology paper. To create a bibliography, gather up all of the sources that you might use in your paper. Create an APA format reference for each source and then write a brief annotation. Your annotation should be a brief summary of what each reference is about. You can quickly refer to these annotations When writing your paper and determine which to include.

What Is an APA Format Bibliography?

An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write an academic paper, essay, article, or research paper—particularly work that is covering psychology or psychology-related topics. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA). This format is used by many psychology professors, students, and researchers.

Even if it is not a required part of your assignment, writing a bibliography can help you keep track of your sources and make it much easier to create your final reference page in proper APA format.

Creating an APA Bibliography

A bibliography is similar in many ways to a reference section , but there are some important differences. While a reference section includes every source that was actually used in your paper, a bibliography may include sources that you considered using but may have dismissed because they were irrelevant or outdated.

Bibliographies can be a great way to keep track of information you might want to use in your paper and to organize the information that you find in different sources. The following are four steps you can follow to create your APA format bibliography.

Start on a New Page

Your working bibliography should be kept separate from the rest of your paper. Start it on a new page, with the title "Bibliography" centered at the top and in bold text. Some people use the title "References" instead, so it's best to check with your professor or instructor about which they prefer you to use.

Gather Your Sources

Compile all the sources you might possibly use in your paper. While you might not use all of these sources in your paper, having a complete list will make it easier later on when you prepare your reference section.

Gathering your sources can be particularly helpful when outlining and writing your paper.

By quickly glancing through your working bibliography, you will be able to get a better idea of which sources will be the most appropriate to support your thesis and main points.

Reference Each Source

Your references should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name, and they should be double-spaced. The first line of each reference should be flush left, while each additional line of a single reference should be a few spaces to the right of the left margin, which is known as a hanging indent.

The format of each source is as follows for academic journals:

• Last name of first author (followed by their first initial)
• The year the source was published in parentheses
• The title of the source
• The journal that published the source (in italics)
• The volume number, if applicable (in italics)
• The issue number, if applicable
• Page numbers (in parentheses)
• The URL or "doi" in lowercase letters followed by a colon and the doi number, if applicable

The following examples are scholarly articles in academic journals, cited in APA format:

• Kulacaoglu, F., & Kose, S. (2018). Borderline personality disorder (BPD): In the midst of vulnerability, chaos, and awe.  Brain sciences ,  8 (11), 201. doi:10.3390/brainsci8110201
• Cattane, N., Rossi, R., & Lanfredi, M. (2017). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms.  BMC Psychiatry,   18 (221). doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2

Visit the American Psychological Association's website for more information on citing other types of sources including online media, audiovisual media, and more.

Create an Annotation for Each Source

Normally a bibliography contains only references' information, but in some cases you might decide to create an annotated bibliography. An annotation is a summary or evaluation of the source.

An annotation is a brief description of approximately 150 words describing the information in the source, your evaluation of its credibility, and how it pertains to your topic. Writing one of these for each piece of research will make your writing process faster and easier.

This step helpful in determining which sources to ultimately use in your paper. Your instructor may also require it as part of the assignment so they can assess your thought process and understanding of your topic.

Reasons to Write a Bibliography

One of the biggest reasons to create an APA format bibliography is simply to make the research and writing process easier.

If you do not have a comprehensive list of all of your references, you might find yourself scrambling to figure out where you found certain bits of information that you included in your paper.

A bibliography is also an important tool that your readers can use to access your sources.

While writing an annotated bibliography might not be required for your assignment, it can be a very useful step. The process of writing an annotation helps you learn more about your topic, develop a deeper understanding of the subject, and become better at evaluating various sources of information.

The following is an example of an APA format bibliography by the website EasyBib:

There are many online resources that demonstrate different formats of bibliographies, including the American Psychological Association website . Purdue University's Online Writing Lab also has examples of formatting an APA format bibliography.

Check out this video on their YouTube channel which provides detailed instructions on formatting an APA style bibliography in Microsoft Word.

You can check out the Purdue site for more information on writing an annotated APA bibliography as well.

What This Means For You

If you are taking a psychology class, you may be asked to create a bibliography as part of the research paper writing process. Even if your instructor does not expressly require a bibliography, creating one can be a helpful way to help structure your research and make the writing process more manageable.

For psychology majors , it can be helpful to save any bibliographies you have written throughout your studies so that you can refer back to them later when studying for exams or writing papers for other psychology courses.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 7th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2020.

Masic I. The importance of proper citation of references in biomedical articles.   Acta Inform Med . 2013;21(3):148–155. doi:10.5455/aim.2013.21.148-155

American Psychological Association. How do you format a bibliography in APA Style?

Cornell University Library. How to prepare an annotated bibliography: The annotated bibliography .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Published Dissertation or Thesis References

This page contains reference examples for published dissertations or theses.

Kabir, J. M. (2016). Factors influencing customer satisfaction at a fast food hamburger chain: The relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Publication No. 10169573) [Doctoral dissertation, Wilmington University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Miranda, C. (2019). Exploring the lived experiences of foster youth who obtained graduate level degrees: Self-efficacy, resilience, and the impact on identity development (Publication No. 27542827) [Doctoral dissertation, Pepperdine University]. PQDT Open. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/2309521814.html?FMT=AI

Zambrano-Vazquez, L. (2016). The interaction of state and trait worry on response monitoring in those with worry and obsessive-compulsive symptoms [Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona]. UA Campus Repository. https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/620615

• Parenthetical citations : (Kabir, 2016; Miranda, 2019; Zambrano-Vazquez, 2016)
• Narrative citations : Kabir (2016), Miranda (2019), and Zambrano-Vazquez (2016)
• A dissertation or thesis is considered published when it is available from a database such as ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global or PDQT Open, an institutional repository, or an archive.
• If the database assigns publication numbers to dissertations and theses, include the publication number in parentheses after the title of the dissertation or thesis without italics.
• Include the description “Doctoral dissertation” or “Master’s thesis” followed by a comma and the name of the institution that awarded the degree. Place this information in square brackets after the dissertation or thesis title and any publication number.
• In the source element of the reference, provide the name of the database, repository, or archive.
• The same format can be adapted for other published theses, including undergraduate theses, by changing the wording of the bracketed description as appropriate (e.g., “Undergraduate honors thesis”).
• Include a URL for the dissertation or thesis if the URL will resolve for readers (as shown in the Miranda and Zambrano-Vazquez examples).
• If the database or archive requires users to log in before they can view the dissertation or thesis, meaning the URL will not work for readers, end the reference with the database name (as in the Kabir example).

Published dissertation or thesis references are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 10.6 and the Concise Guide Section 10.5

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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• If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
• If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
• If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
• All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

• A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
• A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

• Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
• Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
• Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
• Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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APA Citation Style, 7th Edition: Dissertations & Thesis

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Citing Dissertations & Theses in APA Format

Dissertations & Theses

Dissertations and theses are formatted the same way in APA 7th edition. Theses are generally the culminating work for a master's or undergraduate degree and dissertations are often original research completed by doctoral students. Here are examples of a dissertation & a thesis, and how they would be formatted: 

Examples: 

Dissertation found in Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global: 

Reference:  

Banks, B. (2020). Addressing institutional racism in healthcare: A case study (Publication No. 28154307) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global. 

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):  

(Banks, 2020).

In-Text Citation (Direct Quote):

(Banks, 2020, p. 157).

Master's thesis from a University scholarship database: 

Sears, L. B. (2017). The public voice and sustainable food systems: Community engagement in food action plans [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of Kansas.  https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/26899  

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Sears, 2017). 

(Sears, 2017, p. 24). 

Carrie Forbes, MLS

Pages Referenced

Citation information has been adapted from the APA Manual (7th Edition). Please refer to page 333 of the APA Manual (7th Edition) for more information.

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Thesis Preparation: Bibliography & Referencing

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What is a bibliography

A bibliography, sometimes known as a “Reference List” is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include:

• the authors' names
• the titles of the works
• the names of the publishers who published your sources and where they were published.
• the dates your sources were published
• the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

When preparing your thesis, be aware of rules around using copyright restricted material in your submission. The library can advise you on these matters and in relation specifically to publishing and necessary embargoes that should be considered when you prepare your final document.

What is EndNote Online?

EndNote Online  (formerly called EndNote Web) is available to all UL staff and students. It allows you to access your EndNote library from any PC with an Internet connection, to create bibliographies in Word and to share your library with group members.

Creating an EndNote Online account

When you first access EndNote Online you  MUST Register. Please follow the instruction in the box opposite to ensure you register for EndNote Online correctly. If you do not register correctly you will not  be able to access the Harvard UL referencing style.

Once you have created your account you will be able to use EndNote from anywhere once you have a PC with Internet access. 

EndNote Online Cite While You Write plug-in for Word

To download the Cite While You Write (CWYW) plug-in for Microsoft Word go to the  Downloads tab  in EndNote Online.

If you experience any difficulties installing the EndNote CWYW plug-in, you can download and install this  alternative version .

Cite it Right; an introduction to Referencing

Cite It Right 4th Edition

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How To Write a Bibliography (Plus Printable Guide With Examples)

Give credit where credit is due.

Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.

Plus grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . Just fill out the form on this page to get the free guide.

IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.

What is a bibliography?

When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):

• Books and e-books
• Periodicals like magazines or newspapers
• Online articles or websites
• Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.

Bibliography vs. Citations

Citations refer to direct quotations from a text that are woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.

What does a bibliography entry include?

Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order and may include:

• Author/s or creator/s
• Publication date
• Volume and issue numbers
• Publisher and publication city
• Website URL

These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.

What are the different bibliography styles?

In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.

Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.

Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.

APA Style Bibliography and Examples

Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list to only items you cite throughout your work.

How To Write a Bibliography (References) Using APA Style

Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:

• Title your bibliography section “References” and center the title on the top line of the page.
• Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch.
• Include all types of resources in the same list.
• Alphabetize your list by author or creator, last name first.
• Do not spell out the author/creator’s first or middle name—only use their initials.
• If there are multiple authors/creators, use an ampersand (&) before the final author/creator.
• Place the date in parentheses.
• Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, unless the word would otherwise be capitalized (proper names, etc.).
• Italicize the titles of books, periodicals, and videos.
• For websites, include the full site information, including the http:// or https:// at the beginning.

Books and E-Books APA Bibliography Examples

For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books):

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized (unless there’s a proper name/noun) . Publisher. Publisher’s website

• Wynn, S. (2020). City of London at war 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military. https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical APA Bibliography Examples

For journal or magazine articles, use the following format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL

• Bell, A. (2009). Landscapes of fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945. Journal of British Studies (48) 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL

• Blakemore, E. (2022, November 12) Researchers track down two copies of fossil destroyed by the Nazis.  The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic APA Bibliography Examples

For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL

• Wukovits, J. (2023, January 30). A World War II survivor recalls the London Blitz . British Heritage . https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:

Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL

• Growing up in the Second World War . (n.d.). Imperial War Museums. Retrieved May 12, 2023, from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war

When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:

Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL

• War Stories. (2023, January 15). How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? Cities at war: London [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc

For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.

APA Bibliography (Reference List) Example Pages

MLA Style Bibliography Examples

MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.

How To Write a Bibliography (Works Cited and Works Consulted) in MLA Style

For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:

• Start your Works Cited list on a new page. If you include a Works Consulted list, start that on its own new page after the Works Cited section.
• Center the title (Works Cited or Works Consulted) in the middle of the line at the top of the page.
• Align the start of each source to the left margin, and use a hanging indent (1/2 inch) for the following lines of each source.
• Alphabetize your sources using the first word of the citation, usually the author’s last name.
• Include the author’s full name as listed, last name first.
• Capitalize titles using the standard MLA format.
• Leave off the http:// or https:// at the beginning of a URL.

Books and E-Books MLA Bibliography Examples

For books, MLA reference list entries use the following format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military, 2020. www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

Here’s the MLA-style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing:

For magazines and journals:

Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.

• Bell, Amy. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies , vol. 48, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 153–175. www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL

• Blakemore, Erin. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post. 2022, Nov. 12. www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic MLA Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL

• Wukovits, John. 2023. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” January 30,   2023. https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.

• Imperial War Museum. n.d. “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Accessed May 9, 2023. www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war.

Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos:

Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.

• “How did London survive the Blitz during WW2?” Cities at war: London | War stories.” YouTube . Uploaded by War Stories, 15 Jan. 2023. youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing MLA-style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.

MLA Bibliography (Works Cited) Example Pages

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.

How To Write a Bibliography Using The Chicago Manual of Style

Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:

• You may title it “Bibliography” or “References.” Center this title at the top of the page and add two blank lines before the first entry.
• Left-align each entry, with a hanging half-inch indent for subsequent lines of each entry.
• Single-space each entry, with a blank line between entries.
• Include the “http://” or “https://” at the beginning of URLs.

Books and E-Books Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use the following format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2020. Kindle edition.

Periodical Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.

For journal and magazine articles, use this format:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.

• Bell, Amy. 2009. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies, 48 no. 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966.

When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.

• Blakemore, Erin. 2022. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post , November 12, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/.

Electronic Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.

• Wukovits, John. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” British Heritage. 2023, Jan. 30. britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz.

“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Month Day, Year.

• “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Imperial War Museums . www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war. Accessed May 9, 2023.

Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.

• War Stories. “How Did London Survive the Blitz During WW2? | Cities at War: London | War Stories.” YouTube video, 51:25. January 15, 2023. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Example Pages

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Just fill out the form on this page to grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style .

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Chicago Style / How to Cite a Thesis/Dissertation in Chicago/Turabian

How to Cite a Thesis/Dissertation in Chicago/Turabian

Academic theses and dissertations can be a good source of information when writing your own paper. They are usually accessed via a university’s database or a third party database, or found on the web. The main difference between a thesis and a dissertation is the degree type they are submitted for:

• Thesis—A document submitted to earn a degree, such as a master’s degree, at a university.
• Dissertation—A document submitted to earn an advanced degree, such as a doctorate, at a university.

This guide will show you how to create notes-bibliography style citations for theses and dissertations in a variety of formats using the 17th edition of the  Chicago Manual of Style.

Guide Overview

• Citing a thesis or dissertation from a database
• Citing a thesis or dissertation from the web
• Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation

Citing a Thesis or Dissertation from a Database

Citation structure.

1. First name Last name, “Title” (master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published), page number, Database (Identification Number).

Bibliography:

Last name, First name. “Title.” Master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published. Database (Identification Number).

Citation Example

1. Kimberly Knight,  “Media Epidemics: Viral Structures in Literature and New Media” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2011), 17, MLA International Bibliography (2013420395).

Knight, Kimberly.  “Media Epidemics: Viral Structures in Literature and New Media.” PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2011. MLA International Bibliography (2013420395).

Citing a Thesis or Dissertation from the Web

1. First name Last name, “Title” (master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published), page number, URL.

Last name, First name. “Title.” Master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published. URL.

1. Peggy Lynn Wilson, “Pedagogical Practices in the Teaching of English Language in Secondary Public Schools in Parker County” (PhD diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2011), 25, https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/11801/1/Wilson_umd_0117E_12354.pdf.

Wilson, Peggy Lynn. “Pedagogical Practices in the Teaching of English Language in Secondary Public Schools in Parker County.” PhD diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2011. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/11801/1/Wilson_umd_0117E_12354.pdf.

Citing an Unpublished Thesis or Dissertation

In rare cases, you may need to cite a thesis or dissertation that has not yet been published. This is particularly the case if you want to cite your own work or the work of a colleague.

1. First name Last name, “Title” (unpublished manuscript, Month Day, Year last modified), format.

Last name, First name. “Title.” Unpublished manuscript, last modified Month Day, Year. Format.

1. John Doe, “A Study of Generic Topic” (unpublished manuscript, June 19, 2021), Microsoft Word file.

Doe, John. “A Study of Generic Topic.” Unpublished manuscript, last modified June 19, 2021. Microsoft Word file.

Chicago Formatting Guide

Chicago Formatting

• Book Chapter
• Conference Paper
• Musical Recording

Citation Examples

• Thesis or Dissertation
• Encyclopedia
• Sheet Music
• YouTube Video

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How to Write a Bibliography for a Thesis: A Step-by-Step Guide

Writing a thesis is a significant milestone in every student’s academic journey. it involves extensive research, critical analysis, and a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. one crucial aspect of a thesis is the bibliography , which provides a list of all the sources referenced in your research. to help you create an impeccable bibliography for your thesis, we have prepared this step-by-step guide..

Step 1: Understand the Different Citation Styles

Before you begin compiling your bibliography, it is essential to familiarize yourself with the different citation styles used in academic writing. Examples include APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard. Each style has its own set of rules for formatting references, so make sure you know which style your thesis requires.

Step 2: Gather All Your Sources

Start by making a list of all the sources you have consulted during your research. Include books, scholarly articles, websites, interviews, and any other relevant material. Ensure that you have accurate information about each source, such as the author, publication date, title, and page numbers.

Step 3: Organize Your Sources

Once you have compiled a comprehensive list of sources, organize them according to the citation style you are using. This will make it easier to create citations later on. If you are unsure about how to organize your sources, refer to style guides or online resources for guidance.

Step 4: Create Citations

Now it’s time to create citations for each source. Depending on the citation style, you may need to include different elements such as author names, publication dates, and page numbers. Use proper formatting and punctuation as specified by the chosen citation style.

For example, in APA style, a book citation would be formatted as follows:

• Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Initial. (Year). Title of Book . Publisher.

Remember to create citations for all types of sources, including books, articles, webpages, and other relevant materials.

Step 5: Verify Your Citations

After creating citations for all your sources, take the time to double-check their accuracy. Ensure that all the necessary information is included and that formatting is consistent throughout your bibliography. Mistakes in citations can negatively impact the credibility of your thesis, so be meticulous during this step.

Step 6: Arrange the Bibliography

Once you have verified your citations, arrange your bibliography in alphabetical order. If using APA style, the alphabetical order is determined by the author’s last name. In other citation styles, it may be based on the title of the source.

If multiple sources share the same author or title, use additional information such as the publication year to distinguish between them. If necessary, refer to the citation style guide for specific instructions on arranging your bibliography.

Step 7: Format and Proofread

Lastly, make sure your bibliography is properly formatted. Check if the font, spacing, indentation, and other stylistic elements align with the requirements of your thesis or the chosen citation style. Additionally, proofread your bibliography to eliminate any spelling or grammar errors that may have been overlooked.

A well-constructed bibliography is a crucial component of a thesis, showcasing the depth and breadth of your research. By following this step-by-step guide, you will be able to create a comprehensive and accurately formatted bibliography, ensuring that your thesis meets the highest academic standards.

Remember to always refer to the specific requirements of your thesis and the citation style guide you are using. With proper attention to detail and adherence to the given guidelines, your bibliography will be an exemplary representation of your research efforts.

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Writing your Dissertation / Thesis

• Getting started
• Dissertations and theses
• Bibliographic research and literature review
• Citations and bibliography
• Copyright and plagiarism
• Ask a Librarian

Bibliographic research

The search and collection of information from published sources (books, journals, newspapers, etc.) nowadays may include other types of documents, such as websites, reports from bibliographic databases, etc.

Searching for bibliographic sources relevant to your project is an integral and unavoidable part of the thesis work.

To find out how to conduct your bibliographic research, we suggest you consult the Bibliographic Research Guide .

For a start, you can consult the Library books on academic writing (how to write assignments, presentations, theses ...):

Literature review

Literature review is the analysis of the academic literature (articles, books, dissertations, theses, etc.) that you have identified when performing your search on the topic.

A review of the relevant literature for the topic selected is a key element of any academic project (dissertation or PhD thesis, writing an article for an academic journal…) for several reasons:

• it provides you with the conceptual context for your research

• it allows you to acquire, deepen and organize knowledge in the chosen research area

• helps you define or better focus your research objectives

Furthermore, its objectives are:

• describing the state-of-the-art on the given subject (what is the knowledge achieved so far in the research area in which your project fits?)
• identifying strengths and weaknesses, potential gaps in the current knowledge, unexplored empirical issues, or issues that need to be updated
• understanding how the research question is positioned within the field (to what extent does your work provide an original contribution to the research context?)

Want to learn more about the literature review? Explore the Project Planner on SAGE Research Methods .

If you notice that a significant book or resource is not included in the Library collections, please let us know : the Library will consider acquiring it!

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• Last Updated: Jan 30, 2024 11:59 AM
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How to Write a Bibliography for a Thesis

Andrew aarons.

When you are writing your thesis, you will probably have moments where you feel inspired, but those moments are unlikely to come up writing the bibliography. Bibliographies can often be as boring as they are dry, but they give you and your reader a bird’s-eye view of the research you’ve conducted and are a great way to impress someone without writing a single word of your own.

Explore this article

• Choosing a Citation Style
• Sticking to your Citation Style
• Picking Sources
• Proofreading

1 Choosing a Citation Style

There are a lot of citation styles out there, and it isn’t easy to choose one, especially since the differences between them can seem so slight. First, check and see if your professor or supervisor has explicitly requested that you use a specific style. If so, make sure that you honor that request. If not, see if your department has a preferred style -- it can’t hurt to follow it, and might hurt not to. If your professor doesn’t assign a specific style, and your department does not have any requirements, then it never hurts to use the most popular, such as Harvard, MLA, Chicago or APA style.

2 Sticking to your Citation Style

The citation style you choose won’t be as important as your ability to use it: consistency is key. For example, do not use the Chicago style to cite books and then switch to AP style for multimedia. Being consistent doesn’t mean that you have to use the same style throughout your academic career, but you must use it throughout your thesis. A bibliography serves to clarify your research sources, and inconsistency can make finding and identifying the information you used more confusing, which essentially defeats the purpose.

3 Picking Sources

It is very important to use a range of sources in your bibliography. If every article you cite is from the same journal, it may appear that you did not put a lot of time into researching. It is also important to use a range of primary and secondary sources in your bibliography so that you have a good combination of original and critical material. Just make sure that you don’t “pad” your bibliography with sources that look good but that aren't used for a purpose -- it will be more obvious to the reader than you might think. Most importantly, Wikipedia is never considered a legitimate source in academic writing, so make sure not to cite Wikipedia in your bibliography.

4 Proofreading

You should start your thesis well before it's due and give yourself enough time to revise many different drafts with the help of professors and classmates, but sometimes the bibliography is a last-minute addition. Even if you finish your bibliography hours before the thesis is due, it should look clean and professional. While the bibliography may be the last part of the thesis that you write, keep in mind that it may be the first part of your thesis that your professor or committee reads. They will want to check that you’ve properly researched your paper, and when they do, they won’t be impressed by glaring spelling errors or misplaced commas. Don’t lose marks on your thesis by assuming you typed everything correctly the first time. Keep your copy clean all the way through, including -- and perhaps especially -- in your bibliography.

• 1 Using English for Academic Purposes: Writing a List of References
• 2 Purdue Online Writing Lab: MLA Works Cited Page Basic Format
• 3 Purdue Online Writing Lab: APA Reference List Basic Rules

About the Author

Living in Canada, Andrew Aarons has been writing professionally since 2003. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in English literature from the University of Ottawa, where he served as a writer and editor for the university newspaper. Aarons is also a certified computer-support technician.

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Guide to Writing Your Thesis in LaTeX

The bibliography and list of references.

The Graduate School requires a Bibliography which includes all the literature cited for the complete thesis or dissertation. Quoting from the Graduate School’s Guidelines for the Format of Theses and Dissertations :

“Every thesis in Standard Format must contain a Bibliography which lists all the sources used or consulted in writing the entire thesis and is placed at the very end of the work. The complete citations are arranged alphabetically by last name of the author. Individual citations are not numbered. No abbreviations in titles of published works will be accepted. The full title of a book, journal, website, proceedings, or any other published work must be italicized or underlined. Citations must follow standards set by the style manual that the student is using. The bibliography for URI theses is not broken into categories.”

The List of References is not required by the Graduate School, but is the style commonly used in Engineering, Mathematics, and many of the Sciences. It consists of a numbered list of the sources used or consulted in writing the thesis in the order that they are referenced in the text. There can be either one List of References for the entire thesis, or a List of References at the end of each chapter.

Both the Bibliography and the List of References will be generated by the urithesis LaTeX class. All you need to do is add information about your sources to the references.bib file, which is a database containing all of the necessary information about the references, then cite the reference in your thesis using the \cite{} command.

Generating the Bibliography and References

The bibliography and list of references are generated by running BibTeX. To generate the bibliography, load the file thesisbib.tex into your editor, then run BibTeX on it.

If each chapter has its own list of references, you will need to run BibTeX on each chapter to update its list of references. If there is one list of references for the whole thesis (because you used the oneref option, you will only need to run BibTeX on the top level file thesis.tex .

How to Add a Bibliography Entry

When we want to refer to a source in the thesis, we place an entry for that source in the file references.bib , then cite the source in the thesis with the \cite{LABEL} command. The syntax for an entry in the references.bib file is of the form:

ENTRYTYPE is the type of bibliographic entry such as Book , Article , or TechReport , that this entry describes. At the end of this page is a list of all possible entry types .

LABEL is a unique string that is used to refer to this entry in the body of the thesis when using the \cite{LABEL} command.

The FIELDNAMEn entries are the fields that describe this entry, (ie. author, title, pages, year, etc.). Each entry type has certain required fields and optional fields. See the list of all entry types for a description of the available fields.

As an example, suppose we have a paper from a conference proceedings that we want to cite. First we make an entry in the our references.bib file of the form:

We then cite this source in the text of our thesis with the command \cite{re:toolan:as03} . This will generate a Bibliography entry that looks something like:

and a List of References entry that looks something like:

Types of List of References

The Graduate School requires that the bibliography is always at the end of the thesis and sorted alphabetically by author, therefore there is no options that affect it. The list of references is optional, therefore there are a few different ways that it can created.

By default a separate list of references appears at the end of each chapter, and are sorted by the order that they are cited in that chapter. The option oneref (see options ) will create a single list of references for the whole thesis, which due to the requirements of the Graduate School, will appear after the last chapter and before any appendices.

The option aparefs will cite references using the APA style, which is the last name of the author and year of publication, such as (Toolan, 2006), instead of the default IEEE style, which is a number, such as [1]. This option will also sort the references alphabetically by author, instead of in order of citation. The options oneref and aparefs can be used together to create a single list of references using the APA style.

Supported Bibliography Entry Types

The following is a list of all the entry types that can be used. Click on the desired type to see a detailed description of how to use that type.

• Article – An article from a journal or magazine
• Book – A book with an explicit publisher
• InBook – A part of a book, such as a chapter or selected page(s)
• InCollection – A part of a book having its own title
• Booklet – Printed and bound works that are not formally published
• Manual – Technical documentation
• InProceedings – An article in a conference proceedings
• Proceedings – The entire proceedings of a conference
• MastersThesis – A Master’s thesis
• PhDThesis – A Ph.D. dissertation
• TechReport – A report published by a school or other institution
• Unpublished – A document that has not been formally published
• Electronic – An internet reference like a web page
• Patent – A patent or patent application
• Periodical – A magazine or journal
• Standard – Formally published standard
• Misc – For use when nothing else fits

Articles that have not yet been published can be handled as a misc type with a note. Sometimes it is desirable to put extra information into the month field such as the day, or additional months. This is accomplished by using the BIBTEX concatenation operator “#“:

Example .bib using this type:

Books may have authors, editors or both. Example .bib using this type:

Inbook is used to reference a part of a book, such as a chapter or selected page(s). The type field can be used to override the word chapter (for which IEEE uses the abbreviation “ch.”) when the book uses parts, sections, etc., instead of chapters

Incollection is used to reference part of a book having its own title. Like book , incollection supports the series, chapter and pages fields. Also, the type field can be used to override the word chapter.

Booklet is used for printed and bound works that are not formally published. A primary difference between booklet and unpublished is that the former is/was distributed by some means. Booklet is rarely used in bibliographies.

Technical documentation is handled by the manual entry type.

References of papers in conference proceedings are handled by the inproceedings or conference entry type. These two types are functionally identical and can be used interchangeably. Example .bib using this type:

It is rare to need to reference an entire conference proceedings, but, if necessary, the proceedings entry type can be used to do so.

Master’s (or minor) theses can be handled with the mastersthesis entry type. The optional type field can be used to override the words “Master’s thesis” if a different designation is desired:

The phdthesis entry type is used for Ph.D. dissertations (major theses). Like mastersthesis , the type field can be used to override the default designation. Example .bib using this type:

Techreport is used for technical reports. The optional type field can be used to override the default designation “Tech. Rep.” Example .bib using this type:

The unpublished entry type is used for documents that have not been formally published. IEEE typically just uses “unpublished” for the required note field.

The electronic entry type is for internet references. IEEE formats electronic references differently by not using italics or quotes and separating fields with periods rather than commas. Also, the date is enclosed within parentheses and is placed closer to the title. This is probably done to emphasize that electronic references may not remain valid on the rapidly changing internet. Note also the liberal use of the howpublished field to describe the form or category of the entries. The organization and address fields may also be used. Example .bib using this type:

The nationality field provides a means to handle patents from different countries

The nationality should be capitalized. The assignee and address (of the assignee) fields are not used, however, they are provided. The type field provides a way to override the “patent” description with other patent related descriptions such as “patent application” or “patent request”:

The periodical entry type is used for journals and magazines.

The standard entry type is used for formally published standards. Alternatively, the misc entry type, along with its howpublished field, can be used to create references of standards.

Misc is the most flexible type and can be used when none of the other entry types are applicable. The howpublished field can be used to describe what exactly (or in what form) the reference is (or appears as). Possible applications include technical-report-like entries that lack an institution, white papers and data sheets.

Additional Comments

Because we are effectively creating multiple bibliographies, (one for the actual bibliography, and one for each list of references), the two LATEX commands \bibliographystyle{} and \bibliography{} are not used. They have been redefined to do nothing, and the equivalent of these commands are done automatically when necessary.

When there is a reference that should be included in the bibliography, but does not need to be explicitly referenced in the thesis, use the \nocite{} command. This command works like the \cite{} command, except it does not put the citation in the list of references, only in the bibliography. The \nocite{} command must appear after the first \newchapter{} command, or it will be ignored.

When using the option aparefs , and a citation does not have an author, (such as often occurs with a web page), the key field can be used to specify what to use in the citation instead of the author’s name.

About the Bibliography Format

The bibliography format used by the urithesis class is based on the IEEE format. See the article “How to Use the IEEEtran BIBTEX Style” by Michael Shell for more details.

How to structure your PhD thesis

Organising your PhD thesis in a logical order is one of the crucial stages of your writing process. Here is a list of the individual components to include

Shama Prasada Kabekkodu

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The task of writing a PhD thesis is top of mind for many aspiring scholars. After all, completing one is no small task. And while these pieces of writing often share a standard format, this can differ slightly based on the requirements of your institution or subject. So what elements make up a PhD thesis?

A doctoral thesis usually contains:

• A title page
• Declarations from the candidate and supervisor
• A certificate from the candidate and supervisor
• A plagiarism report
• Acknowledgements 
• A table of contents
• Abbreviations 
• An abstract

Chapters typically cover:

• A general introduction 
• Literature review
• Analysis of the gap in research with aims and objectives
• Materials and methods
• Summary and conclusion
• References or bibliography. 

You should also include a list of papers you have published and any relevant achievements at the end. 

An explanation of each of the components of a PhD dissertation 

Title page: a PhD thesis starts with a title page that contains the complete title of the research work, the submitting university, names of the candidate and supervisor, affiliation and month and year of submission.

Abstract: this serves as a concise synopsis of the dissertation, covering the research context, purpose of the study or research questions, methodology, findings and conclusions. This section is usually one to two pages in length. 

Table of contents: this page lists the thesis content and respective page numbers.

General introduction and literature review: this component is usually 20 to 40 pages long. It presents the readers with the primary material and discusses relevant published data. It provides an overview of pertinent literature related to the thesis such as texts that critically assess the existing literature to identify the gap in research and explain the need behind the study. 

Aims and objectives: this section of the thesis is typically one to two pages long and describes the aims and objectives of the study. Structure them as three to four bullet points describing specific points that you will investigate. Approach this by thinking about what readers should understand by the end of the thesis. Ensure you:

• Give a clear explanation of the purpose and goals of your study 
• Outline each aim concisely
• Explain how you will measure your objectives
• Ensure there is a clear connection between each aim
• Use verbs such as investigate, evaluate, explore, analyse and demonstrate.

Materials and methods: this section briefly explains how you have conducted the study and should include all the materials you used and procedures you implemented. For example, if your research involves working with chemicals, list the chemicals and instruments used, along with their catalogue numbers and manufacturers’ names. This section should also explicitly explain the methodology you used, step-by-step. Use the past tense while writing this section and do not describe any results or findings of the study yet.

Results: this section is sometimes called the “findings report” or “the experimental findings” (referring to data collection and analysis). Write the results concisely and in the past tense. Include text, figure and table infographics created with tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe Illustrator and BioRender to visualise your data . 

Discussion: this is a chance to discuss the results and compare the findings of your study with the initial hypothesis and existing knowledge. Focus on discussing interpretations, implications, limitations and recommendations here.

• Resources on academic writing for higher education staff 
• Tips for writing a PhD dissertation: FAQs answered
• How to tackle the PhD dissertation

Summary and conclusion: this section should be shorter than the discussion and summarise your key findings. The summary and conclusion should be brief and engaging, allowing the reader to easily understand the major findings of the research work. Provide clear answers to the research questions, generate new knowledge and clarify the need for the study. 

Future perspective: this section of the thesis (which is often combined with a summary or conclusion) talks about the study's limitations, if any, and indicates the directions for future studies based on your findings. 

References or bibliography: the last section should include the list of articles, websites and other resources cited in the thesis.

Always remember that, depending on the department, university or field of study, you might have to follow specific guidelines on how to organise your PhD thesis. Ensure you consult your supervisor or academic department if you have any doubts.

Shama Prasada Kabekkodu is a professor and head of cell and molecular biology at Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India.

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Tips on How to Write a Thesis Bibliography

A thesis bibliography is a compilation of all the sources utilized and suggested for additional research by the author. This list is usually placed after the main body of the dissertation. Here, sufficient sources’ details should be added to be independently verified.

Each citation must include the author’s name, the source’s title, and the publisher’s name. In addition, students must include the year of publication and the page number where the information is found. It might be somewhat overwhelming if you aren’t used to putting together the bibliographies section of your project. However, this article will discuss tips on how to write a thesis bibliograph y section.

Guide to writing a perfect thesis bibliography

On days when you don’t feel like writing, compiling your bibliography could be productive. Although, it may take longer to compose and arrange than you anticipate especially when you have no idea how to get it done.

Various fields use different formats to write a bibliography. The APA and MLA styles are most widely employed for sciences and humanities. However, when citing the bibliography of sources from an article, the rule should be changed to suit the article’s citation style. Here are some bibliography styles and tips for writing them:

MLA bibliography

Based on the Modern Language Association handbook, Seventh Edition, students are to add a Works Cited page as their bibliography. This style differs from the APA and Chicago style. This difference is because of the need to identify the publishing medium, such as print, video, or DVD.

To write in this style, the author’s last name, comma, first name, and period make up the basic format. It would be best if you then typed the publisher’s name, a colon, a comma, the year of publication, and a period. Students should then list the book’s title after a period in italics. Lastly, you should finish with the publication medium and a timeframe for the project.

In summary,

“The author’s last name, first name. The Book title. The Publication City: the Publishing company, the publication date.”

• For Newspapers and Magazines

“The author’s last name, the first name. “The Article title.” Periodical title volume Date: inclusive of the pages.”

APA bibliography

Social science dissertations frequently cite the American Psychological Association. When writing in APA style, you utilize a reference list rather than a bibliography. If you are required to write your bibliography in APA style, follow the Sixth Edition. This edition requires you to speak with your committee head about additional specifications.

This style is distinctive since you mention your references in your content. The fundamental formatting requirements for your entry are the author’s last name, comma, first initial, and then period. Put the publishing year in parenthesis after that, then a period. Then, put a period after the work’s title in italics.

Furthermore, students should write the publisher’s name, a colon, and location. Lastly, add a period.

• For Books for APA bibliography

“The Author’s last name, the first initial. (The Publication date). The Book title . The City of Publication: Publishing company.

• For Encyclopedia

The Author’s last name, the first initial. (Date). The Title of Article. The Title of Encyclopedia (Volumes, pages). The City of Publication: Publishing Company.

• For Magazine and Newspaper Article

The Author’s last name, the first initial. (Publication Date). The Article title. The Periodical title, the Volume number (issue number if there’s any), page numbers.

Chicago bibliography

This style requires that you include a bibliography page using the 16th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style. For proper formatting, list the author’s last name, a comma, their first name, and a period after each entry.

The text’s title should then be typed in italics and followed by a period. Then, add the publisher’s name, a comma, the year of publication, and a period. Finish with the city where the work was published, and add a comma.

The Author Last Name, the First Name. The Book Title: the Subtitle. The Edition. The Place of publication: the Publisher, Year. DOI/URL.

• For Journals

The Author Last Name, the First Name. “The Article Title.” The Journal Name Volume, no. Issue (Month Year): the Page range. DOI/URL.

Other important tips to keep in mind

What is bibliography in research papers without research and consistency? Aside from the bibliography style used, there are other important tips for writing a perfect bibliography.

• Stay consistent with citation style

Your bibliography in the thesis won’t matter as much as how consistently you can use it. Using the AP style for multimedia and the Chicago style for book citations is wrong. Consistency doesn’t require you to stick to one writing style throughout your academic career, but your thesis requires it.

Inconsistency can make locating and identifying the data you utilized more difficult. Thus, it effectively negates the purpose of a bibliography, which is meant to clarify your research sources.

• Proofreading

The bibliography for thesis may be the final section of your thesis that you write. However, you should know that your lecturer or committee may examine it first. The readers won’t be pleased by obvious spelling mistakes or awkward comma placement when they check your work.

You risk losing points on your dissertation by assuming you typed everything perfectly the first time. Ensure that you proofread what goes into a bibliography countless times before turning your thesis in.

Writing for academic purposes differs significantly from writing done for leisure. You have a more outstanding obligation to the reader since you’re contributing to an intellectual discussion and must cite any borrowed ideas. Therefore, taking your time to write it appropriately is crucial.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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What is a Tentative Thesis and How to Write One? A Step-by-Step Guide

A college or university thesis is considered the best achievement for students because of their hard work. In short, the thesis is the highest point after several years of study in the field of business, history, or literature.

Your tentative thesis can be the basis of your career as a researcher. Hence, it should show the depth of your knowledge of the field. It is important to understand what a tentative thesis is and what steps are involved in writing a perfect thesis.

This article will guide you on what a tentative thesis is, its examples, and how to write one. If you are not sure about your writing or research skills or are short on time, acquire  thesis writing services online  and get help for your paper from a professional.

If you are sure about your skills and that your studies, health, and social life will not be compromised while writing this thesis, continue reading the guide to get good advice.

What Is a Tentative Thesis?

A tentative thesis is a lengthy paper that involves a person’s research paper written for a university degree, as Oxford Languages states. It is called a tentative thesis because the initial thesis statement is always unsure and may change upon further study. The idea of developing a tentative thesis statement is to make the process easy and start writing the thesis instead of getting stuck on the first step.

How to Write a Tentative Thesis?

Research is the best tool for gathering information that will help you understand the topic. It is the most important part of thesis writing, as it allows you to develop an in-depth understanding of the subject and be certain that you are well-informed.

1. Research the Topic Thoroughly

To solve problems or gain more knowledge, a systematic and planned study/investigation of a subject or topic is research. Research can help you gather the information that will help you understand the topic. Develop an in-depth understanding of the subject, and be certain that your decisions are well-informed.

The resources for your research have to be credible, peer-reviewed articles, government agencies, and professional organisations. The credibility of the sources can be checked by, implementing a CRAAP method. CRAAP represents

Here are the credible sources that will be helpful in your research process:

• Congress Library
• Google Scholar
• Google Books
• Commons Network
• Research gate

According to the topic, select a related research method, such as mixed methods, qualitative research, quantitative research, or questionnaire.

2. Construct a Detailed Plan/Structure for the Writing

Once you're done with the research, it's time to move to the planning and structuring part. While planning your dissertation, ensure that you fulfil the important requirements. Manage your time well and be mentally prepared for obstacles. It is also better to document the process, such as databases, search queries, and sources.

After planning your thesis, move to the structure of the thesis. The structure of your thesis generally remains the same and includes these sections: 

• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Research Methods
• Findings/Results
• Discussions
• Citation List

Planning and structuring your content well will give direction to your writing and make you more focused on the paper.

3. Formulate a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a line or two that conveys the central idea of the dissertation. The essential thing to start writing your thesis is a perfect thesis statement. A thesis statement has to focus on the main idea of the text. It's important to convey the central idea in a few sentences because the reader can understand easily and it remains on their mind.

As we know, writing a thesis statement can be a tiring task. You can make it super easy by dividing it into chunks.

• State the topic sentence to show the basic idea. "  The world war was fought over Hitler's invasion. "
• Use transition words to build a connection between the topic and details. " Adolf Hitler's invasion was the main cause of World War II. "
• Conclude with a statement that summarises the central ideas of a text. " Adolf Hitlers invasion was the major reason for World War II, Hitler was defeated by the world "

4. Decide and Write Body Text and Arguments

The body text helps you to prove your research question. If the topic is simple, you don’t need a lot of text, but if the topic is complex, you might need a lot of text. Plus, building the arguments logically is important. Examiners don’t like their concentration to be broken.

It has to be an argument, and its evidence must be presented perfectly so a reader doesn’t need to stop and read the text or reread it. The reader should read the text in a flow. It will turn out to be ugly if your marker has to stop and try to understand the argument if it’s logical and makes any sense. Keep the argument and evidence sustainable to ensure the flow of the thesis from introduction to conclusion.

5. Provide the References and Bibliography

Both the reference list and bibliography provide a list of sources cited in the text throughout. However, what bibliography includes are the sources or data you consulted during the project and decided not to cite.

To build the credibility of your academic writing, it’s important to provide a reference list or bibliography as required by the institute. It is required so the marker can easily check your reference and validate the information. There are different types of referencing styles available. Including

You need to collect all the information about the sources that will be used in referencing, like the author, publication date, book name, and publisher information. For journals, you need to include the journal title, volume, issue, and page number. Overall, different information from different types of sources is required.

6. Proofread and Submit Your Thesis

To ensure the technical accuracy of a text, you need to proofread the text for any technical or grammatical errors. After you have completed all of your content editing, you can move to the proofreading stage.

First, proofread the thesis for technical requirements, such as sections, structure, and word count allocated to the task. Then again, proofread the text for information provided, grammatical errors, and referencing.

It is important because you’re working on an academic writing task and these types of mistakes have no place in academic writing.

7. Prepare Oral Presentation

After you’ve completed and submitted your tentative thesis, it is time to start preparations for the oral defence presentation. This step is as important as researching the information or writing the thesis. Once the thesis is submitted, you should start preparing the defence presentation.

In your defence presentation, you can be asked questions outside the thesis, so it is a better idea to prepare yourself for that also. Identify the purpose and goals of the thesis, know your audience’s information, arrange the materials and compose the presentation. Preparing for the presentation is also a very tiring task if you don’t want to stress yourself so much, hand over your thesis to a  professional thesis writer ,  who can write a perfect paper in a short time.

The most important preparation for the thesis presentation is to practice your presentation with some class fellows or thesis advisors. After all, it's not all about the information; it's about how you present that information.

Tentative Thesis Example

We have provided an example of a tentative thesis from Kathmandu University for your reference. This can provide you with a better idea of what a great thesis seems like and how you can write one as well.

How Long Should a Tentative Thesis Be?

The word limit of the tentative thesis depends on the institute-provided word limit. It varies from institute to institute and course to course. The general word count for:

• Undergraduate thesis is typically 8,000-15,000 words.
• Master’s thesis is 12,000-50,000 words.
• PhD thesis is book-length, typically 70,000-100,000 words.

Why Is a Tentative Thesis Important?

To get the degree from your university, it's important to write a well-researched tentative thesis. These are the common benefits of writing a thesis.

• Adds information to the knowledge base.
• Increase discipline.
• It helps academics to make informed decisions.
• Through the thesis, information was recorded and can be held for the future.

To conclude the guide, a tentative thesis is not very different from a simple thesis. In a tentative thesis, you just need to keep the thesis statement a bit uncertain, which can be changed as the research and writing process goes on. We have also answered the common questions about thesis writing, like why it is important and what the length of your thesis should be. An example is provided for your ease. 

In this article, we have guided you through seven steps on how to write a tentative thesis. If you have any sort of difficulty writing your thesis, you can feel at ease, as you can get the  thesis writing help online  from an expert who can handle your thesis writing worries very well.

The Power of Thesis Writing: Unlocking Academic Success and Career Advancement

Thesis writing is a critical component of academic pursuits, particularly at the graduate and postgraduate levels. It represents the culmination of years of study, research, and intellectual exploration. A well-crafted thesis not only showcases a student’s mastery of a subject matter but also demonstrates their ability to conduct independent research, analyze data, and present findings in a coherent and compelling manner.

One of the primary reasons why thesis writing is crucial for academic success is that it serves as a gateway to higher academic achievements. Many universities and academic institutions require students to complete a thesis or dissertation as a prerequisite for obtaining advanced degrees, such as a master’s or doctoral degree. Very often, such a requirement can prompt students to order the writing from a professional thesis helper in order not to fail the task. Successful completion of a thesis demonstrates a student’s ability to contribute to the body of knowledge within their field of study, setting them apart from their peers and positioning them for future academic opportunities.

How thesis writing can impact career advancement

While thesis writing is often perceived as a purely academic endeavor, its impact extends far beyond the realm of academia. The skills and knowledge acquired during the thesis writing process can be instrumental in advancing one’s career prospects, regardless of the chosen field.

Firstly, a well-executed thesis demonstrates an individual’s ability to tackle complex problems, conduct in-depth research, and present findings in a clear and concise manner. These qualities are highly valued in various professional settings, as they reflect a person’s analytical and communication abilities, which are essential for success in any career path.

Furthermore, the subject matter and findings of a thesis can directly contribute to an individual’s professional expertise and credibility within their field. By exploring a specific topic in-depth and generating new insights or solutions, individuals can position themselves as subject matter experts, potentially opening doors to valuable networking opportunities, consulting roles, or even leadership positions within their industry.

Additionally, the process of thesis writing cultivates perseverance, resilience, and the ability to work independently – traits that are highly sought after by employers across various sectors. Individuals who have successfully completed a thesis have demonstrated their capacity to overcome challenges, manage their time effectively, and deliver high-quality work under pressure.

Key components of a successful thesis

A successful thesis is not merely a collection of words and ideas; it is a carefully crafted document that adheres to specific guidelines and incorporates several key components. These components ensure that the thesis is well-structured, coherent, and effectively communicates the research findings and conclusions.

• Introduction: The introduction serves as the foundation of the thesis, providing context and background information, stating the research problem or question, and outlining the significance and objectives of the study.
• Literature Review: A comprehensive literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing knowledge and theories related to the topic. It identifies gaps in the current body of knowledge and justifies the need for the proposed research.
• Methodology: This section outlines the research design, data collection methods, and analytical techniques employed in the study. It should be detailed and transparent, allowing for replication and validation of the research findings.
• Results and Analysis: This section presents the findings of the research, supported by relevant data, tables, figures, and statistical analyses. It involves a critical examination and interpretation of the results in relation to the research objectives and existing literature.
• References: A comprehensive list of all sources cited within the thesis, adhering to the appropriate citation style and formatting guidelines.

Tips for effective thesis writing

Embarking on the journey of thesis writing can be daunting, but with the right strategies and mindset, it can be a rewarding and enriching experience. Here are some tips to help you navigate the process effectively:

• Create a detailed outline: An outline serves as a roadmap, helping you organize your thoughts, structure your arguments, and ensure a logical flow throughout your thesis.
• Manage your time effectively: Thesis writing is a time-consuming process, so it’s essential to develop a realistic timeline and stick to it. Break down the project into manageable tasks and set achievable deadlines.
• Seek feedback and guidance: Regularly consult with your thesis advisor or supervisor for feedback and guidance. Their expertise and guidance can help you refine your ideas, identify potential pitfalls, and ensure you’re on the right track.
• Maintain focus and motivation: Thesis writing can be mentally and emotionally draining. Find ways to stay motivated, such as setting small achievable goals, celebrating milestones, and taking breaks when needed.

Thesis writing services and professional assistance

While thesis writing is a personal and academic endeavor, it is perfectly acceptable and often beneficial to seek professional assistance. Thesis writing services and consultants can provide invaluable support throughout the process, helping you overcome challenges and ensuring a high-quality final product. These services typically offer a range of offerings, including:

• Editing and proofreading: Professional editors can help refine your writing, ensuring proper grammar, syntax, and adherence to academic writing conventions.
• Formatting and citation assistance: Thesis formatting and citation styles can be complex and vary across institutions. Professional services can ensure your thesis meets all formatting and citation requirements.
• Research and writing support: Experienced writers and researchers can assist with literature reviews, data analysis, and the overall development and structuring of your thesis.
• Consultation and mentoring: Thesis consultants can provide guidance, feedback, and mentorship throughout the writing process, helping you navigate challenges and stay on track.

In conclusion, thesis writing is a pivotal component of academic and professional development. It not only demonstrates mastery of a subject matter but also cultivates valuable skills that can propel individuals toward academic success and career advancement. By understanding the key components of a successful thesis, employing effective writing strategies, and seeking professional assistance when needed, individuals can navigate the thesis writing process with confidence and unlock their full potential.

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Is social media making you unhappy? The answer is not so simple

Senior Lecturer, School of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, University of Adelaide

Professor of Data Science, University of Adelaide

Disclosure statement

Melissa Humphries receives funding from the NIH and the Department of Defence.

Lewis Mitchell receives funding from the Australian Research Council, NHMRC, and Department of Defence.

University of Adelaide provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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You may have seen headlines that link social media to sadness and depression. Social media use goes up, happiness goes down. But recent studies suggest those findings might not be so straightforward.

Although it is true that people’s feelings of envy and depression are linked to high social media use, there is evidence to suggest social media use may not be causing that relationship. Instead, your mindset may be the biggest thing affecting how social media connects to your wellbeing.

People who feel they are able to use social media, rather than social media “using them”, tend to gain more benefits from their online interactions.

Why do people use social media?

Social media covers a broad range of platforms: social networking, discussion forums, bookmarking and sharing content, disseminating news, exchanging media like photos and videos, and microblogging. These appeal to a wide range of users, from individuals of all ages through to massive businesses.

For some, social media is a way to connect with people we may not otherwise see. In the United States, 39% of people say they are friends with people they only interact with online .

For older people, this is especially important for increasing feelings of connectedness and wellbeing. Interestingly though, for older people, social media contact with family does not increase happiness . Meanwhile, younger adults report increased happiness when they have more social media contact with family members.

Teens, in particular, find social media most useful for deepening connections and building their social networks .

With social media clearly playing such an important role in society, many researchers have tried to figure out: does it make us happier or not?

Does social media make us happier?

Studies have taken a variety of approaches, including asking people directly through surveys or looking at the content people post and seeing how positive or negative it is.

One survey study from 2023 showed that as individuals’ social media use increased, life satisfaction and happiness decreased . Another found that less time on social media was related to increases in work satisfaction, work engagement and positive mental health – so improved mental health and motivation at work.

Comparing yourself to others on social media is connected to feelings of envy and depression. However, there is evidence to suggest depression is the predictor, rather than the outcome, of both social comparison and envy.

All this shows the way you feel about social media matters . People who see themselves using social media rather than “being used” by it, tend to gain benefits from social media and not experience the harms.

Interviews with young people (15–24 years) using social media suggest that positive mental health among that age group was influenced by three features :

• connection with friends and their global community
• engagement with social media content
• the value of social media as an outlet for expression.

There are also studies that look at the emotions expressed by more frequent social media users.

The so-called “ happiness paradox ” shows that most people think their friends on social media appear happier than themselves. This is a seeming impossibility that arises because of the mathematical properties of how friendship networks work on social media.

In one of our studies, Twitter content with recorded locations showed residents of cities in the United States that tweeted more tended to express less happiness .

On the other hand, in Instagram direct messages, happiness has been found to be four times more prevalent than sadness .

How does internet use in general affect our wellbeing?

Some of the factors associated with decreased mental health are not aligned with social media use alone.

One recent study shows that the path to decreased wellbeing is, at least partially, connected to digital media use overall (rather than social media use specifically). This can be due to sleep disruption, reduced face-to-face social interaction or physical activity, social comparison, and cyberbullying. None of these exist for social media alone.

However, social media platforms are known to be driven by recommendation algorithms that may send us down “rabbit holes” of the same type of (increasingly extreme) content. This can lead to a distorted view of the world and our place in it. The important point here is to maintain a diverse and balanced information diet online.

Interestingly, interacting on social media is not the only thing affecting our mental state. Rainfall influnces the emotional content of social media posts of both the user experiencing rain, and parts of their extended network (even if they don’t experience rain!).

This suggests that how we feel is influenced by the emotions in the posts we see. The good news is that happy posts are the most influential, with each happy post encouraging close to two additional happy updates from a user’s friends.

The secret to online happiness therefore may not be to “delete your account” entirely (which, as we have found , may not even be effective), but to be mindful about what you consume online. And if you feel like social media is starting to use you, it might be time to change it up a bit.

• Social media
• Mental health
• Social media addiction
• Social media use
• Teens and social media

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In a First-of-Its-Kind Program, Physicians at This Medical Center Now Write “Power Prescriptions”

• 1 Freelance Journalist, New York, New York

Over the past year, physicians at Boston Medical Center (BMC) have written hundreds of letters to energy companies to prevent their patients’ utilities from being shut off. Massachusetts passed a law in 2009 that protects power customers with illnesses from having their utilities terminated. Physicians at BMC have been screening their patients for energy insecurity since 2017 to identify whether they have difficulty paying an electric or heating bill. Although the letters help keep the lights on for many of these vulnerable patients, they aren’t a sustainable way to address the financial strain energy bills may have on patients. So, last fall, BMC started a program to address this social need via a new prescription: clean power.

The novel program uses energy bill credits generated by a new 365-kW solar panel on BMC’s administrative building to reduce patients’ electric bills. The solar panel sends unused electricity to the grid, which is virtually metered and valued into clean energy credits. BMC donates the credits to the energy accounts of participants in the Clean Power Prescription program —the first of its kind in the nation.

“Electricity is critical for heating in the winter, cooling in the summer, and then for running medical devices” like continuous positive airway pressure machines, nebulizers, and home dialysis machines, said Anna Goldman, MD, MPH, MPA, a primary care physician at BMC and a cofounder of its new program. Patients also need refrigeration, which relies on electricity, to store fresh food and some medications, she noted.

After noticing how many letters she and her colleagues were writing to energy companies, Goldman reached out to BMC Chief Sustainability Officer Bob Biggio, who would later launch the power prescription program with her.

Biggio was already planning to install a solar array on one of BMC’s rooftops to improve hospital-wide sustainability efforts, and he liked the idea of it contributing to the mission of helping patients with their energy bills. Plus, prescribing power felt like a natural extension of what BMC had already been doing with food insecurity. “Given our food pantry and teaching kitchen, BMC has a long history of trying to go upstream and keep its community healthy, rather than just treat them for medical conditions,” he said.

The new initiative is funded by BMC and the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act’s Low-Income Communities Bonus Credit Program, which increases the amount of tax credits for clean energy investments in low-income communities. BMC is one of the first health systems to use this tax credit and give it directly back to the patients it serves, according to Biggio.

Currently in its pilot phase, the program will provide about 80 patients with monthly $50 energy credits for a year. To qualify, patients must screen positive for energy insecurity, have Eversource as their energy provider, and live in one of 33 cities in the northeast Massachusetts load zone, the grid territory where the solar array is located. They must also be enrolled in the hospital’s Complex Care Management Program, which includes patients in the health system’s WellSense Medicaid program who have frequent visits and at least 1 chronic condition.

“The idea is that if we try to address these patients’ social determinants of health, and make sure they make it to appointments, then maybe we'll be able to prevent unnecessary visits to the emergency department, unnecessary inpatient admissions, and improve their health outcomes,” Goldman said.

Energy as a Social Determinant of Health

Energy insecurity is a growing issue for millions of households across the US. In 2020, the US Energy Information Administration’s Residential Energy Consumption Survey found that one-fourth of all households reported experiencing any energy insecurity. According to the report, households with children, renters, and members of racial and ethnic minority groups were disproportionately affected by energy-related financial stresses.

Some health systems like BMC have started screening for energy insecurity as a social determinant of health. “Low-income patients are disproportionately impacted by the high costs of energy,” said Evan Michael Shannon, MD, MPH, an assistant professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, and a hospitalist at the West Los Angeles VA Medical Center, who researches how structural racism and social determinants of health impact health care access and outcomes for vulnerable populations. “They may end up having to make tough decisions about whether to pay for their utilities or health care.” As the summer rolls around, it’s especially important to screen under resourced patients who are living in so-called urban heat islands , which are hotter than surrounding areas, he added.

According to Shannon, health systems rarely screen for energy insecurity, but it may come up in social determinants of health screeners as a need related to income. Energy has only recently garnered the attention of environmental health experts. Earlier this year, for example, researchers in New York City reported results from “the first citywide representative survey of energy insecurity and health.” Residents found to experience energy insecurity had higher odds of respiratory, mental health, and cardiovascular diseases than energy-secure individuals.

Whether BMC’s power prescription program can improve enrollees’ health remains to be seen. Goldman and her team are currently researching the program’s outcomes with questionnaires that ask patients how the energy credits have affected their physical and mental health and financial well-being.

Challenges to Implementation

Other hospitals and health systems have reached out in the hopes of adopting a similar program in their own communities, Goldman said. But the upfront cost of installing a solar array is a significant barrier. BMC received some initial funding from TD Bank to implement the project and is looking for additional corporate donors in the future. It’s planning to install more solar arrays on campus to generate additional energy credits that can then be funneled toward more patients.

In the meantime, Goldman and Biggio are calling on local businesses, real estate developers, and other companies to donate energy credits generated from their own panels to BMC patients. “We are actively recruiting outside partners who can also use an existing solar array, which is a nice model for getting renewable energy that’s cheaper and cleaner to patients that need it the most,” Goldman said. It’s a mutually beneficial arrangement, she explained: if companies contribute at least 50% of the credits generated by an existing or new solar array to the BMC program, they may become eligible to receive the Low-Income Communities Bonus Credit through the Inflation Reduction Act, which substantially offsets the cost of solar array installation.

But installing solar arrays to provide patients with energy prescriptions may not be a reality for many health systems, especially those that have few interventions in place to address social determinants of health. For these locations, screening patients for energy insecurity, referring them for energy assistance benefits, and advocating for equitable laws and policies that prevent energy shutoffs like the one in Massachusetts could be a start, Shannon noted.

“Health systems need to address social risks and move beyond traditional brick-and-mortar health care,” he said.

Addressing energy efficiency and decarbonizing electrical grids is just one of many ways hospitals and health systems can help pave the way to health equity. “If you look at what health care reform is really asking of all hospitals in the country,” Biggio said, “it’s to try to be more proactive towards keeping the community they serve healthy, rather than waiting for people to become ill and treat them for their illnesses.”

Published Online: June 21, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.10993

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Goldman reported receiving funding from the National Institute of Mental Health (K23MH128639) and the Boston University School of Medicine Department of Medicine Career Investment Award. Mr Biggio reported serving as a board member for A Better City, the Newmarket Business Improvement District, and Oakwell, a for-profit health care sustainability company partially owned by Boston Medical Center Health System. No other disclosures were reported.

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Nayak A. In a First-of-Its-Kind Program, Physicians at This Medical Center Now Write “Power Prescriptions”. JAMA. Published online June 21, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.10993

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