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Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Understanding Administrative Support from the Perspective of Special Educators , Morgan M. Glasson

Efficacy and Outcome Beliefs of General and Special Education Teachers Working with Culturally Linguistically Diverse Students with Disabilities , Jennifer L. Hastings

Transition Planning and the School to Prison Pipeline: a Phenomenological Study Investigating the Lived Experiences of Alternatively Placed High School Black Males with High Incidence Disabilities , Brandon Garrett Thornton

Training Caregivers of Young Children Who Are Deaf / Hard of Hearing To Implement Communication Facilitation Strategies , Rachel Lynn Wells

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Factors Associated with Parent Involvement for African American Youth with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Findings from the Nlts-2012 , LaTonya J. Harris

Special Education Preservice Teachers Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy: a Mixed Methods Study , Krystal Lewis-Pratl

Exploring African American Vernacular English and Disproportionality in Special Education , Camille O'Quin

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Factors That Influence Parent Communication Decisions for Their Deaf or Hard of Hearing Child in Illinois , Karla A. Giese

Orientation and Mobility Service Decisions: What Is Guiding Them if It Is Not Assessment? , Lauralyn Kay Randles

Being Black while Leading: a Mixed Methods Study of Black Administrators' Experiences in U.s. Public Schools , Latasha Marie Schraeder

Special Education Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Cooperating Teachers’ Co-teaching Relationships: a Qualitative Study , Christianna N. Vehlow

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Knowledge, Concerns, and Interventions Related to D / Deaf English Learners , Molly Beth Turner

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Communication between Home and School for Parents of Children with Chronic Illness , Keri Edwards

Deaf / Hard of Hearing Preschool Students’ Acquisition of Language through Dyadic and Triadic Communication Contexts , Molly S. Herman

Teaching Students with Developmental Disabilities To Sequence Academic Content Using Video Modeling and Constant Time Delay via an Ipad Application , Allison Marie Kroesch

Young Adults with Visual Impairments and Driver's Education: Journeys of Self-Efficacy, Identity, and Transition to Adulthood , Molly Pasley

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Caregivers' and Professionals' Perceptions on Collaboration in Early Intervention , Sara J. Edwards

Teachers' Perceptions of Addressing Leisure in Curriculum for Students with Severe Disabilities , Kara Klepp

A Qualitative Investigation of Secondary General Education Teachers' Perspectives on Their Involvement in Transition Services , Stephen M. Kwiatek

Computer-Mediated Communication Usage and Perceptions amongst Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Laura A. Massier

Measuring the Longitudinal Communication Growth of Learners Who Are Deafblind , Kristi M. Probst

Investigating Trust Relationships between Special Education Teachers and Their Principals and Special Education Directors , William D. Roseland

The Effects of Text-to-Speech on Reading Comprehension of Students with Learning Disabilities , Mary Cece Young

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Social Positioning: Positioning Adults with Severe and Multiple Disabilities and Complex Communication Needs for Social Interaction , Dena Bonnike

Understanding the Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Preservice Learning and Behavioral Specialists during Their Practicum, Field-Based, and Student Teaching Semesters , Alice S. Cahill

Educators' Perceptions of the Importance and Intensity of Supports in the General Education Classroom for Students with Individualized Education Plans , Stephanie N. DeSpain

Parent-Implemented Intervention Using an Ipad To Enhance Expressive Language in Young Children , Yvette Renee Evans

Effects of a Self-Advocacy Intervention on the Ability of High School Students with High Incidence Disabilities To Advocate for Academic Accommodations , Nancy J. Lopez

Elementary General Education Teachers' Perspectives towards the Inclusion of Students with Emotional Disturbances , Leona E. O'Dear

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Delivering the Parent-Implemented Communication Strategies ( Pics ) Intervention Using Distance Training and Coaching with a Father and His Child Who Is Hard of Hearing , Marc Daczewitz

Effects of Explicit Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction for English Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities , Sara Lynn Jozwik

Rural High School Special Education Teachers' Perceptions Related to Structured Work Experiences , Abigail Meghan Christina Lies

Perceptions of the Roles of Paraprofessionals and Other Support Strategies To Assist Students with Disabilities in the General Education Classroom , Chrystyna Eliashevsky Sroka

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Evaluating Factors That Influence Treatment Integrity during Peer Consultation , Jennifer Ann Arms

The Effect of Metalinguistic Strategy Instruction on the Oral and Written Expression of School-Aged Children , Karen Lara Dudek

Exploratory Study of the Perspectives of Midlife Adults with Intellectual Disability, Their Parents, and Case Managers Regarding Quality of Life and Needed Supports and Services , Jane L. Lurquin

The Effect of Self-Monitoring on Academic Engagement of Students with Emotional Disturbance , Clayton Theisinger

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

An Examination of Student Perceptions of Regional Safe School and Public School Services , Elizabeth Degruy

Leadership for Equity in Education: Perceptions of Disability Studies Concepts by Directors of Special Education , Andrea P. Dinaro

Understanding the Support Needs of People with Intellectual and Related Developmental Disabilities through Cluster Analysis and Factor Analysis of Statewide Data , Yuwadee Viriyangkura

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Article Contents

Introduction, child development, developmental disability, early intervention for children with developmental disabilities, case studies of eci for children with developmental disabilities, the case for action, author's contributions, acknowledgements, competing interests, ethical approval.

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Early intervention for children with developmental disabilities in low and middle-income countries – the case for action

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Tracey Smythe, Maria Zuurmond, Cally J Tann, Melissa Gladstone, Hannah Kuper, Early intervention for children with developmental disabilities in low and middle-income countries – the case for action, International Health , Volume 13, Issue 3, May 2021, Pages 222–231, https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihaa044

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In the last two decades, the global community has made significant progress in saving the lives of children <5 y of age. However, these advances are failing to help all children to thrive, especially children with disabilities. Most early child development research has focussed on the impact of biological and psychosocial factors on the developing brain and the effect of early intervention on child development. Yet studies typically exclude children with disabilities, so relatively little is known about which interventions are effective for this high-risk group. In this article we provide an overview of child development and developmental disabilities. We describe family-centred care interventions that aim to provide optimal stimulation for development in a safe, stable and nurturing environment. We make the case for improving opportunities for children with developmental disabilities to achieve their full potential and thrive, including through inclusive early childhood development intervention. Finally, we call for the global research community to adopt a systematic approach for better evidence for and implementation of early interventions for children with developmental disabilities in low-resource settings.

Substantial global progress has been made in reducing child deaths since 1990 and the mortality rate of children <5 y of age has decreased in all world regions. However, non-communicable morbidities and disabilities have not been addressed to the same extent. This review discusses the urgency of taking actions to narrow the inequality gap in early childhood developmental care, especially for the 53 million children <5 y of age living with disabilities and developmental disorders such as epilepsy, intellectual disability, sensory impairments, autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 1 A focus on supporting children with disabilities to thrive during their early years is important, as this period is critical for maximising their development. Furthermore, under the United Nations Convention of Rights for a Child and the United Nations Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, governments are duty-bound to provide early years services that are inclusive of and available to all children. 2 , 3 This article will describe child development and developmental disabilities and make the case for which equitable early childhood development (ECD) interventions may be optimal for helping children with developmental disabilities to achieve their potential.

Early childhood is a period of great opportunity for optimum brain growth, but it is also a period of vulnerability. Development in language, cognition, motor and socio-emotional domains occurs rapidly in these first years. These areas of development do not operate or develop in isolation, but enable each other and mutually interact as the child learns to become more independent. For instance, as a child learns to see, she will increasingly reach for and play with objects and thereby develop motor skills and coordination. Biological, psychosocial 4 , 5 and environmental factors also crucially affect the structure and functioning of the brain as it is developing. 6 For example, if a child experiences adequate nutrition and is provided with opportunities to play, she may progressively explore her environment and interact with her caregiver and by doing so, reinforce her psychosocial development. Furthermore, the time period when these factors influence brain growth are critically important, as there are particular early windows of opportunity that if not harnessed, may prevent optimal brain development and lifelong well-being. 7

It is increasingly apparent that optimal early child development has lifetime beneficial consequences for educational achievement, adult productivity and population health. 8–10 Conversely, exposure to biological and psychosocial risks negatively affects the developing brain and compromises the development of children. 5 Many structural factors determine these early child circumstances. These factors include a lack of nurturing care (nutrition, stimulation, good health) in the early years, as well as inadequate cognitive and psychosocial stimulation. 5 , 11 Children <5 y of age in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) may be particularly at risk of poor development due to poor health and nutrition. 7

Child development can be encouraged through intervention in early childhood. 11 A number of mutually important elements are needed for maximising children's development. These include supporting responsive relationships, reducing sources of stress in the lives of children and families, building executive function and self-regulation skills and reinforcing contexts in which learning is most achievable across all developmental domains. 12 , 13 ECD interventions work to improve development through integrating family support, health, nutrition and educational services and providing direct learning experiences to young children and families. 14

The strategic focus of the World health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and World Bank ‘Nurturing Care Framework’ is therefore timely. 15–17 This action plan provides a framework for helping children survive and thrive through five strategic actions—lead and invest, focus on families and their communities, strengthen services, monitor progress and use data and innovate—and thereby aims to transform health and human potential. We know that urgent action is necessary to improve early childhood outcomes and ensure that all children reach their full potential as adults. Children with developmental disabilities must be included in this agenda, as they are a marginalised group with additional and specific needs and will otherwise be left behind.

Developmental delay and developmental disability are two distinct concepts. Developmental delay is often defined as a deviation from normative milestones; this may be in terms of delayed cognitive, language, motor and/or socio-emotional development. 18 The term developmental disabilities covers a range of childhood conditions and is used differently across different settings and cultures. 19 In this article we define developmental disability as a heterogeneous group of conditions that can impact on the development of children's function (e.g. sensory, cognitive, physical), with a very wide range of effects. 20 Developmental disability is the most common cause of childhood disability, with an estimated 53 million children <5 y of age living with developmental disabilities globally. 21 This estimate is based on only six conditions (epilepsy, intellectual disability, vision loss, hearing loss, autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and on present reporting of these conditions. It is likely therefore that the true number of children with developmental disability is much higher than this estimate, particularly if a broader age range is considered.

The majority of children with developmental disabilities live in LMICs, 21 and the prevalence is higher among families with high levels of poverty and low education. 27 However, there remain data gaps for the prevalence, epidemiology and causes of developmental disabilities in LMICs. 28 One reason for the uncertainty in the estimates is that identification of children with or at risk of developmental delay requires assessment using valid developmental evaluation tools to measure ECD 29 (Box 1 ), and these facilities are often not available in LMICs.

Identification of children with developmental disabilities

The impacts of developmental disabilities extend far beyond functional abilities. Children with developmental disabilities and their families are at high risk of social exclusion, exclusion from education and even stigma and violence. 30 Furthermore, looking after a child with developmental disabilities potentially places an enormous strain on families, and caregivers experience high levels of stress, anxiety, depression, physical exhaustion, stigma and discrimination. 31 This further increases the risk of mental ill health and social isolation in caregivers. A recent systematic review found caregivers of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities, when compared with caregivers of children without intellectual and developmental disabilities, experienced elevated levels of depressive symptoms (31% vs 7%, respectively) and anxiety symptoms (31% vs 14%, respectively). 32 There are also substantial costs to childhood disability, both the cost of additional services and resources required by the child and the lost income from parents who are caring for their child. Consequently, childhood disability may exacerbate poverty. 33 , 34 However, there is generally a lack of available services and support for children with disabilities and their families, especially in LMICs, which further compound these risks.

Evidence is limited, but growing, on the effectiveness of ECD interventions for children at risk of and with developmental delays, particularly in LMICs. 35 Indeed, many programmes and studies actively exclude children with developmental disabilities, as additional considerations may be required, and children with developmental disabilities may be unable to show progress when using developmental progress as the primary outcome 9 , 36–38 (Box 2 ).

Inclusion of children with developmental disabilities in clinical trials

Consequently, risks to delayed development are compounded for children with developmental disabilities, as they potentially receive less stimulation and fewer learning opportunities through other health service or care routes. 39 Exclusion of children with developmental disabilities from ECD thus perpetuates an already fragile cycle of development. We know that early childhood developmental intervention for these children is imperative, but we cannot inform planning and delivery of inclusive services for all children without better research in this area. For example, there are gaps in evidence-based approaches to monitoring and evaluation of ECD projects in LMICs, such as challenges in measurement of outcomes in routine programmes, which limit comparative understanding of impact, and in defining and monitoring quality and coverage. 25

Early identification of children with developmental disabilities, as well as early childhood intervention (ECI), improves children's opportunities to maximise their developmental potential and functioning as well as their quality of life and social participation. 40 , 41 Early identification and intervention are two distinct complementary strands; timely identification of children with developmental disabilities is required for early intervention, which strengthens the cumulative process of development, helping children acquire new skills and behaviours to reinforce and strengthen learning. In addition, some ECIs may have wider benefits for caregivers, such as through establishing support, thus helping build their knowledge, confidence and coping strategies, 32 with positive impacts for their mental health. However, data are lacking from LMICs and there is a paucity of implementation evidence to guide policymakers and donors. 33

ECI for children with disabilities can comprise a range of coordinated multidisciplinary services and can take many forms, including hospital- or clinic-based care, school-based programmes, parenting and community support and home-based childhood therapies. In high-resource settings, we know that family-centred interventions are more likely to result in the greatest satisfaction with services and improve psychosocial well-being for the child and caregiver. 42 With regards to impact, a systematic review of ECIs for children at risk of cerebral palsy demonstrated improved cognitive outcomes up to preschool age and improved motor outcomes during infancy, although variability in interventions limited the identification of which interventions are most effective. 43 Nevertheless, without such ECIs in LMICs, years lived with disability will be more than 3.3 million. 1

There are broadly two approaches to providing ECI for children with developmental disabilities, including children with disabilities in mainstream ECD interventions and targeted intervention programmes for children with disabilities. These approaches take many different forms, as they are used to support children and families with different needs. For example, universal programmes in the UK, such as the five mandated health visits for young children, are offered to all families. In contrast, targeted programmes, such as the Disabled Children's Outreach Service (DCOS), are aimed specifically at vulnerable families of children with a disability where the children are at higher risk of poor outcomes in later life. 44

While both inclusive and targeted efforts for children with disabilities at the level of early childhood centres have increased, 45 weak country health systems and conflict settings are major impediments to delivering high-quality services. 46 There remains a need for inclusive approaches for children with developmental disabilities in mainstream services, as well as within specialist ECIs. This means that the role of families can be particularly crucial to fill existing gaps in service availability.

A number of case studies have been identified for ECI for children with developmental disabilities. The following have been selected for description, as they illustrate different approaches for children with different developmental disabilities in several LMIC settings.

The WHO has developed Caregiver Skills Training (CST) for caregivers of children with intellectual disabilities. 47 , 48 The CST consists of nine group sessions and three home visits. The programme teaches strategies to promote communication and learning and address challenging behaviours. However, sustainable and scalable quality delivery of the group format by a lay facilitator remains a challenge due to limited integration in health systems. 49 Evidence of effectiveness is currently lacking, but randomised controlled trials are under way in Pakistan (Family Networks [FaNs] for Children with Developmental Disorders and Delays 50 ) and Italy, with future trials planned in China, Ethiopia and Kenya. 51

Interventions that aim to provide contextualised psychological support to caregivers of children with intellectual disabilities include ‘Titukulane’, a community group intervention that aims to reduce mental health problems among the parents of affected children. 52 This community-based intervention consists of eight modules that have been developed and piloted to help parents cope with the challenging role of caring for a child with intellectual disabilities.

Learning through Everyday Activities with Parents (LEAP-CP) is a family-centred intervention delivered peer to peer at home during 30 weekly 2h visits that aims to improve the mobility of children with cerebral palsy. 53 Visits include therapeutic modules (goal-directed active motor and cognitive strategies and LEAP-CP games) and parent education. Randomised controlled trials are currently under way in India. 54 The trial also provides nutrition and health support to all families in the study, which may influence the findings.

The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (UK) has developed three caregiver group interventions under the ‘Ubuntu’ umbrella (resources available from www.ubuntu-hub.org ). The interventions consist of 10 sessions, the content of which includes information about essential care practices, such as feeding, positioning, communication and play, offered through a local support group format. ‘Getting to know cerebral palsy’ was developed as a resource to empower families using a participatory approach at the community level. 31 , 55 The ABAaNA Early Intervention Programme (EIP) was developed in response to a recognised need to support families of very young children (<2 y) with an evolving developmental disability. 56 ‘Juntos’ was developed for children with congenital Zika syndrome and their families in Latin America and integrates a strengthened component on caregiver emotional well-being, arguably fundamental to a child's early development. 57–60

Interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder include PASS, a parent-mediated intervention for autism spectrum disorder in India and Pakistan. 61 The intervention uses video feedback methods to address parent–child interaction and was adapted for delivery by non-specialist workers. As PASS is focused on improving a child's social communication, common mental health comorbidities such as sleep difficulties will be important to integrate into wider intervention programmes.

These examples provide good case studies of diverse interventions for different children with developmental disabilities in different low-resource settings. These case studies indicate that in LMICs, the gap in meeting the holistic needs of children with developmental disabilities may be addressed through the use of community-based group interventions facilitated by trained and supervised health or peer support workers. Commonality is the focus on caregiver involvement, which is critical, particularly where there are few health services. Yet formal evaluation of their effectiveness and cost-effectiveness is lacking, in addition to limited implementation with education and social welfare, which hampers scaling of these services.

The number of children with developmental disabilities is large and the impacts on the child and family are extensive. There are valuable lessons learned from case studies, yet there remains insufficient progress in ECI for children with developmental disabilities and unmet needs are widespread. The causes of this gap are complex and diverse. An important reason is that in many settings health services are often fragile, poorly coordinated and overstrained, with concerns about the availability and quality of healthcare workers capable of delivering the intervention. Health systems gaps are particularly important in fragile states, including those affected by war and famine, as they experience many competing pressing needs. Furthermore, the policy agenda supporting a focus on children with developmental disabilities is weak internationally and nationally in many cases, limiting the priority given to this issue and the availability of funding for developing services. Ensuring inclusive education is a clear responsibility for United Nations member states under international treaties and Sustainable Development Goal 4, to ‘ensure inclusive, equitable quality education for all’. However, investing in inclusion prior to schooling is not mandated and consequently becomes optional. Cultural challenges also exist, such as widespread stigma and discrimination around children with disabilities and their families. 62 Finally, the evidence base on needs for and effectiveness of services is currently weak and needs to be strengthened. Enhancing environments that provide equal opportunities for children with developmental disabilities for ECI therefore requires a systems approach with global collaboration.

Accordingly, priorities for future research to ensure that all young children reach their development potential include assessment of the effect of interventions for children with developmental disability and their families in different low-resource settings. Further identification of barriers to accessing general services (e.g. primary healthcare) as well as specialist services is also required, as poverty remains a major issue for affected families in LMICs. Furthermore, studies that identify how to maximise the reach and cost-effectiveness of ECD interventions for children with developmental disabilities are warranted. Evaluation of how these interventions can be embedded within health systems are needed to strengthen the service delivery strategies. Global collaboration in these efforts are required in research, and critical steps include providing best evidence on practices to improve knowledge and skills at local levels to avoid children with developmental disabilities being turned away from existing services and evidence of ‘what works’ to provide sustainable, inclusive ECD interventions with impact in resource-constrained settings. We call for international research communities, including funders, to adopt a systematic approach for better evidence.

ECD interventions are aimed at improving the development of children. However, children with developmental disabilities are often excluded from these programmes, even though they have the greatest need for support. There is still a dearth of research about what interventions are effective in improving outcomes for this marginalised group and an even greater lack of evidence on cost-effectiveness and what can be successfully implemented at scale. A two-pronged approach is likely to be optimal, encouraging the inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream ECD programmes, while also offering targeted approaches, most likely through caregivers. We call for global collaboration among international research communities, including funders, to adopt a systematic approach to strengthening the available evidence base of interventions for children with developmental disabilities and their families. We call for greater attention for this marginalised group, to prioritise public policies and hold governments accountable to ensure that multisectoral services centred around the child and his/her family are provided during this crucial time. This will contribute to ensuring that all children have an early foundation for optimal development, a key factor in equitable long-term health.

HK conceived the study. TS carried out the analysis and interpretation of case study data. TS and HK drafted the manuscript. MZ, CJT, MG and HK critically revised the manuscript for intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. TS and HK are guarantors of the paper. The data underlying this article are available in the article and in its online supplementary material.

This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust and Department for International Development (grant 206719/Z/17/Z to HK). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

MG is a member of expert panels for the WHO and UNICEF on measurement of childhood development and disability. This research paper was undertaken outside and separate from these duties.

Not required.

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Completed clinical trials with a focus on developmental outcomes

• child development
• developmental disabilities
• disabled children
• early intervention (education)

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Parents of children with disabilities: A systematic review of parenting interventions and self-efficacy

Ameer s.j. hohlfeld.

1 Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, South Africa

Michal Harty

2 Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa

Mark E. Engel

3 Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa

An increasing body of empirical evidence suggests that early intervention has positive outcomes for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. Parental self-efficacy has been used as an outcome measure in some empirical studies; however, there is a lack of evidence of the impact of parent training programmes on parenting self-efficacy beliefs.

This systematic review sought to assess the effectiveness of parenting interventions to increase parental self-efficacy levels in parents of young children with neurodevelopmental disabilities.

We conducted a broad literature search, which included grey literature, such as dissertations and unpublished conference presentations, to identify all relevant prospective studies reporting on our study objective. Articles were selected for inclusion using predefined criteria and data were extracted onto a purposely designed data extraction form. Twenty-five articles met our search criteria. We extracted parenting self-efficacy scores before, and on, completion of parenting interventions and performed a meta-analysis using standardised mean difference. We also conducted a risk of bias assessment for all the included studies.

Parent training programmes resulted in a statistically significant increase in parental self-efficacy levels (standardised mean difference, 0.60 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 0.38–0.83]; I2, 74%) relative to baseline measurements. Parents of children younger than 5 years demonstrated the highest increase in levels of parental self-efficacy after parenting interventions. Furthermore, this review showed that psychologists and other healthcare practitioners are successfully able to implement training programmes that enhance parenting self-efficacy.

Parent training programmes are effective in increasing parental self-efficacy in parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities.

Introduction

An increasing body of empirical evidence suggests that early intervention has positive outcomes for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (Guralnick 2017 ). Early intervention leads to an increase in developmental, social and functional outcomes for children (Dunst 2007 ; Guralnick 2017 ). Furthermore, there are numerous psychosocial benefits for parents, including an increase in parental empowerment, a decrease in parental stress and the improvement of parental self-efficacy (PSE) levels (Barlow, Coren & Stewart-Brown 2002 ). Consequently, lack of access to early intervention has been proposed as one explanation for why low- and middle-income (LAMI) countries have fallen short of effectively addressing Millennium Development Goals relating to child health (Samuels, Slemming & Balton 2012 ). In addition, many LAMI countries lack sufficiently skilled health practitioners to initiate and sustain such early interventions (Einfeld et al. 2012 ; Samuels et al. 2012 ).

Parents have an important role to play in a child’s psychosocial development (Kagan 1999 ). Consequently, a number of parenting interventions for families of young children with neurodevelopmental disabilities have been designed and evaluated globally over the past few decades (Kaminski et al. 2008 ; Salas & Cannon-Bowers 2001 ). These interventions are designed to improve a parent’s ability to successfully parent their children, through training, support or education, and the main goal is to influence the parent’s psychosocial well-being (Mejia, Calam & Sanders 2012 ). The majority of these programmes consist of skills training, parent education, parent support and/or parent coaching, and as a result they are said to be focused on the provision of knowledge (parent support) or techniques (parent-mediated intervention) (Bearss et al. 2015 ). The primary aims of these interventions are to reduce the impact of the challenges faced by the family of children with disabilities through teaching parents new knowledge and skills to reduce the child’s behavioural, emotional and developmental difficulties (Reichow et al. 2013 ). The methods of delivery of such training may include large seminar delivery, small group programmes and individual coaching sessions. The formats include telephone-assisted programmes, face-to-face programmes, self-directed programmes and online parenting programmes. The effectiveness of these programmes is not solely reliant on the delivery methods utilised, or content taught, but rather on the types of activities that are incorporated into the programmes (Kaminski et al. 2008 ; Woods et al. 2011 ). According to Kaminski et al. ( 2008 ), intervention teaching methods that included practising new skills with their own child and role play demonstrated the greatest effect size. Through these types of teaching activities, parents are taught intervention techniques that can be incorporated into their daily routines. This makes the impact of the intervention more sustainable compared to clinician-implemented interventions (Sanders & Kirby 2012 ; Strauss et al. 2013 ).

Researchers with a focus on the psychosocial development of children with developmental disorders indicate that PSE may have an important role to play in the development of a child (Coleman & Karraker 2003 ; Jones & Prinz 2005 ; Kendall & Bloomfield 2005 ; Montigny & Lacharité 2005 ). The PSE construct is primarily grounded in Bandura’s social-cognitive theory and has been defined as the belief in one’s own abilities to arrange and carry out tasks or actions to yield a specific achievement (Bandura 1977 ; 1989 ; 1997 ; Bandura & Walters 1977 ). A high level of PSE will cause parents to think and act in ways that will optimise the developmental outcomes of their children (Reichow et al. 2013 ). In other words, parents who face numerous stressors, but have high levels of PSE, are still able to facilitate positive developmental experiences for their children (Elder 1995 ). Consequently, developers of parenting interventions have paid considerable attention to the mechanisms whereby PSE beliefs can be enhanced (Bloomfield & Kendall 2007 ; Hudson et al. 2003 ; Jones & Prinz 2005 ; Sanders & Woolley 2005 ).

There are four primary methods in which self-efficacy can be modified (Bandura 1989 ). These methods serve to either enhance or decrease perceived levels of PSE. The first and most important method is that of enactive mastery (personal) experience. This results from prior accomplishment in certain activities. Enhancing PSE levels is thus achieved by allowing parents to experience success in situations that they previously found challenging (Bandura 1977 ). A second, likely method for improving personal self-efficacy is through the use of vicarious experiences. The individuals learn by observing challenging activities carried out by competent models, allowing them to re-evaluate their own mastery capabilities in relation to similar challenges they would encounter. It is especially useful when individuals see themselves as being similar to the observed model (Bandura 1997 ). Thus, having group discussions with other parents facing similar challenges, or watching videos or live parent models carrying out challenging tasks, are activities that may enhance PSE levels. A third mechanism to improve self-efficacy beliefs is the use of verbal and social persuasion, whereby others provide informed verbal feedback of an individual’s capabilities pertaining to a certain task (Bandura 1997 ; Woods et al. 2011 ). Encouragement from others is believed to be useful in improving self-efficacy and skill, whereas discouragement has the opposite effect (Bandura 1986 ). Within parenting programmes, feedback or coaching from the interventionists may provide this source of modification. The fourth way self-efficacy beliefs can be modified is through emotional and physiological arousal. Parents may experience stressful physiological responses that include increased stress, anxiety and/or fatigue, which make it harder to experience success (Bandura 1986 ). Therefore, reducing negative emotional arousal to subjective fears (through increased knowledge or skills, or access to necessary formal and informal support) would subsequently enhance performance and improve perceived self-efficacy (Bandura 1986 ). Figure 1 is a visual representation of common intervention activities and how they may influence self-efficacy beliefs. However, as programmes typically aim to decrease stress as an outcome for their intervention, based on the cumulative benefits of the other activities rather than the inclusion of a specific intervention activity (like mindfulness), this modifier is not included in Figure 1 .

Parental self-efficacy sources frequently used in parent training programmes.

To our knowledge, there have been no systematic reviews of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to assess the effects of parent training interventions on PSE for parents with young children that have neurodevelopmental disabilities. Through a systematic review of existing studies the primary objective was to assess the immediate change in PSE levels following parent training programmes for parents in the intervention arms of the included studies. The secondary objectives were to compare the change in PSE levels:

• for interventions directed at parents of children younger than the age of 5 years and studies directed at parents of children 5 years and older,
• for trademarked or copyrighted interventions and those without licencing,
• for studies administered by a psychologist and those that were implemented by other healthcare practitioners,
• and to conduct a moderator analysis (assess heterogeneity) and risk of bias assessment to compare the treatment effects across the different kinds of parent training programmes.

We hypothesised that there would be a significant positive effect size for PSE levels when combining all included studies. Furthermore, we predicted a larger effect size associated with licenced interventions than non-licenced interventions, as well as greater gains in PSE levels in studies targeting parents of children younger than 5 years of age compared to those targeting parents of children older than 5 years. Typical developmental milestones are well documented for children from 0 to 5 years. Consequently, skills-based parent training for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities typically focus on teaching parents to facilitate their child’s development, using these milestones as guidelines. However, from age 5, many children in developed country contexts will be following a more academic curriculum in their educational context rather than a developmental curriculum. Parent training for this group of parents often targets a wider range of topics. Consequently, we hypothesised that the more focused programmes targeting parents of young children under five would have a greater impact on PSE than the programmes for parents of school-aged children, which are more heterogeneous in content. Given the multidisciplinary nature of early intervention services in developed country contexts and the nature of the activities that enhance PSE (see Figure 1 ), we hypothesised that any member of a multidisciplinary team should be able to implement a parent intervention that would enhance PSE.

Eligibility criteria

Studies selected for this review needed to meet the following inclusion criteria:

• The study needed to be an RCT using parent training interventions for parents with children diagnosed with neurodevelopmental disabilities.
• Caregivers needed to be biological parents of children (aged between 0 and 10 years) with established neurodevelopmental disabilities, including, but not limited to, an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, multiple and/or significant disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is now included in the DSM-5 as a neurodevelopmental disability). The parenting skills needed to parent a young child will differ from those needed to parent a preadolescent. Preadolescence is generally defined as the period between 10 and 13 years of age. Consequently, we set the upper limit for child’s age to 10 years.
• Interventions needed to address elements of a child’s psychosocial development through parent support, training, education and/or coaching.
• The control groups needed to receive either no intervention or care as usual.
• Programmes needed to report on parental outcomes that fell under the PSE construct (we included the terms ‘parental competence’ and ‘parental confidence’ under this construct).
• The study needed to state the means, standard deviations and sample sizes in the publication or in response to a request made to the corresponding author of the publication.

Studies were excluded if:

• PSE levels were not measured,
• wrong study design,
• children were too old,
• wrong or no neurodevelopmental disability,
• intervention not described,
• full-text articles were not accessible to the researchers and/or corresponding authors were unable to provide data in time.

Search strategy

Relevant studies were obtained using various strategies; an example of the search strategy used can be found in the Appendix. Two authors, Ameer Hohlfeld (A.H.) and Michal Harty (M.H.), extensively searched databases, without any language or time limitations. An updated search was conducted in August 2017. The databases searched were EMBASE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Academic Search Premier, Africa-wide Information, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health, Education Resources Information Center, Health Source (consumer edition), PsycARTICLES, Google Scholar, Dissertation Abstracts International, and the Cochrane Library (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Cochrane Methodology Register). Using unlimited truncation characters for each database, we used the following search strategy after determining key medical subject heading terms for each of the inclusion criteria. We supplemented the above searches with a manual search of Google Scholar and other grey literature sites. In addition, we searched reference lists of included studies to identify any missing articles, abstracts and conference proceedings, which we then requested from the authors. A.H. then revised all relevant material obtained from the search. After reading the titles and abstracts of the identified studies, we retrieved the full-text studies for every citation potentially meeting inclusion criteria. Both A.H. and M.H. revised the full-text articles using a predesigned study eligibility form to decide on the inclusion status ( Figure 2 ).

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow chart presenting the documentation and selection of included studies in the systematic review.

Data extraction

A.H. and M.H. independently extracted the data using a homogenous data extraction form, which they then cross-checked. M.E. settled discrepancies through discussion where necessary. Information extracted from the studies included country in which the study was conducted, study design, sample size, child diagnosis, mean age of the child in years and standard deviation, target parent participating in the intervention, name of the parenting intervention programme, coach or trainer administering the intervention and the tool used to measure PSE. We extracted means, standard deviations and sample sizes for each relevant intervention group measuring PSE for the analysis. Only the baseline scores and first recorded post-intervention PSE scores were extracted. Where possible we only extracted PSE scores from studies using standardised interventions if the study also tested modified or enhanced versions of the interventions.

Data analysis

The standardised mean difference (SMD) was used to assess the overall change in PSE levels because studies used different scales to measure the mean change in PSE levels (Higgins 2009 ). We calculated the I 2 statistic for each analysis as a measure of the proportion of the overall variation that is attributable to between-study heterogeneity (Hozo, Djulbegovic & Hozo 2005 ). Data were analysed using Review Manager 5.3 (The Cochrane Collaboration 2014 ). The outcomes (PSE, parenting competence, parenting confidence) were considered as continuous variables. In addition, meta-analyses were performed on each of the subgroups. Where significant heterogeneity was found, the random-effects model was used.

For the PSE measures, some studies combined the subscales scores producing a Parenting Sense of Competence (PSOC) total score ( n = 7), while others reported the scores on the PSOC efficacy subscale separately ( n = 9). For the self-efficacy tools (such as the PSOC and the Parenting Tasks Checklist, PTC) that summed separate subscale scores into a total score, only the efficacy subscale scores were extracted. Where these subscale scores were not provided, we used the total score for the scale. Where studies evaluated more than one format of the intervention, we extracted data from the standard interventions and not the adapted formats.

Risk of bias

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement suggests that methods describing the assessment for risk of bias be included in meta-analyses or systematic reviews (Moher et al. 2009 ). We individually inspected specific components in each included study for risk of bias: selection of participants for each study, sequence generation and randomisation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data or missing data (attrition bias), selective outcome reporting and other sources of bias. Each component of the risk of bias assessment was scored as having a high, low or unclear risk of bias according to established methods (Higgins & Altman 2008 ). In the event of a disagreement between A.H. and M.H., consensus was determined through consultation and discussion with M.E.

Ethical considerations

Ethics approval is not required for this study, given that systematic reviews draw on secondary publicly available data from published studies.

Description of studies

We obtained 1624 titles and abstracts from electronic databases and trial registries. An additional 53 references were found through manually searching the reference lists of included studies. For two of these the full-text version could not be accessed and the authors were thus contacted. Therefore, a total of 1677 studies were retrieved and, once duplicate studies were removed, 456 studies remained. A further 356 articles were excluded based on examination of title and abstracts, after which 100 articles were potentially eligible for inclusion, pending full-text assessment. A native French speaker translated a French language article. Finally, 25 articles met our inclusion criteria, of which 3 studies were not published. Figure 2 depicts a flow diagram of the literature search results.

Table 1 summarises the characteristics of the included studies. There were 1697 families who participated in the studies; the sample sizes ranged from 11 to 305. Of the 25 studies, the majority of child diagnoses included ADHD and/or conduct disorder or non-compliant behaviour problems (13 studies) and ASD (8 studies). The remainder consisted of non-specific developmental disorders (3 studies) and cerebral palsy (1 study). It is interesting to note the lack of RCTs measuring PSE for conditions such as cerebral palsy, which is fairly prevalent, particularly in LAMI countries.

Characteristics of randomised controlled trials conducted globally meeting inclusion criteria.

SSTP, Stepping Stones Triple-P; ADHD, attention deficit/hyperactive disorder; CD, conduct disorder; PSOC, Parenting Sense of Competence; IY, the Incredible Years basic parent training; NBP, non-compliant behaviour problems; PTC, Parenting Tasks Checklist; NSDD, non-specific developmental disorders; P-ESDM, Parent Early Start Denver Model; ASD, autism spectrum disorder; MRB, managing repetitive behaviours programme; VIPP-AUTI, Video-Feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting Adapted to Autism; PEQ, parental efficacy questionnaire; FBST, Functional Behaviour Skills Training; PPQ, Parent Perception Questionnaire; PTC, Parenting Tasks Checklist; PT, parent training; PCSSTP, Primary Care Stepping Stones Triple-P.

The majority of studies were conducted in Australia ( n = 12), with three studies conducted in the UK, two studies each in Hong Kong, USA and New Zealand, while one study was conducted in each of the following countries: Portugal, Canada, Netherlands and Israel. The children’s ages ranged from 1 to 10 years. Eighteen studies had a mean children’s age younger than 5 years, while seven studies reported a mean age older than 5 years. Seven studies specifically recorded PSE scores of mothers; of these, six studies directed their interventions solely at mothers. The remaining 18 studies did not specify who received the intervention and they reported combined PSE scores, without stratifying the outcomes for mothers and fathers.

Parent training programmes were not standardised across studies. Of the better-known programmes, 15 studies assessed different forms of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program©, two studies assessed the Incredible Years basic parent training programme, one tested the parent-administered version of the Early Start Denver Model and one tested Project ImPACT (Improving Parents as Communication Teachers). The remaining six studies trialled less commonly known interventions. Twenty-three studies had copyright or trademark licences for the interventions employed in the study. Furthermore, the interventions were administered either by psychologists ( n = 12) or by healthcare or education practitioners ( n = 13). These professionals included nurses, special education teachers and allied health professionals (such as speech and language therapists, occupational therapists and social workers).

The PSE levels were assessed using different measures: 17 studies used the PSOC, four studies used different formats of the PTC and the remaining four studies employed less commonly utilised PSE assessment tools.

Treatment effects

Summative parental self-efficacy measures (25 studies).

As displayed in Figure 3 , compared to baseline measurements, parent training programmes resulted in a statistically significant increase in PSE levels across all studies, irrespective of assessment tool employed ( n = 683; SMD, 0.60 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 0.38; 0.83]; I 2 = 74%). Table 2 displays the summative results including those from the subgroup analyses.

Random effects meta-analysis of the summative effects of parent training programmes on parental self-efficacy levels.

Summative parental self-efficacy outcomes and the subgroup analyses.

k , number of studies; d , overall effect size; CI, confidence interval; I 2 , measure of degree of heterogeneity; PSE, parental self-efficacy.

Subgroup analysis

Parental self-efficacy according to children’s ages.

Studies were stratified according to the mean ages of children in each study ( Figure 4 ). Parents of children aged 5 years and older showed that the intervention had no statistically significant effect on PSE ( n = 160; SMD, 0.34 [95% CI, –0.35; 1.03]; I 2 = 88%). By contrast, parents of children younger than 5 years showed a statistically significant increase in PSE levels, thus favouring the intervention ( n = 523; SMD, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.50; 0.89]; I 2 = 54%).

Random effects meta-analysis of the summative effects of parent training programmes according to child age.

Intervention type

Studies were stratified according to whether they incorporated copyright or trademark interventions compared to non-licenced interventions ( Figure 5 ). Copyright or trademark interventions showed a statistically significant effect for enhancing PSE levels ( n = 669; SMD, 0.65 [95% CI, 0.43; 0.88]; I 2 = 74%). In contrast, non-licenced interventions were ineffective for enhancing PSE levels and had an effect that was non-significant ( n = 14; SMD, –0.26 [95% CI, –0.99; 0.46]; I 2 = 0%).

Random effects meta-analysis of the summative effects of parent training programmes according to programme type.

Qualification of programme administrator

We considered whether studies implemented by healthcare practitioners other than psychologists showed variability in the effectiveness of the PSE outcomes compared to those that were facilitated by psychologists ( Figure 6 ). Healthcare practitioners administering parent training programmes showed a statistically significant effect favouring the intervention ( n = 298; SMD, 0.72 [95% CI, 0.49; 0.95]; I 2 = 41%). Where psychologists administered parent training programmes, results also showed a statistically significant effect favouring the intervention ( n = 385; SMD, 0.53 [95% CI, 0.16; 0.90]; I 2 = 84%).

Random effects meta-analysis of the summative effects of parent training programmes according to professional delivering the intervention.

We used moderator analyses to assess the percentage of variability in the effect sizes across the parent training programmes for PSE in each subgroup analysis that was present. When exploring heterogeneity of the summative assessment for PSE measures, a substantial percentage of heterogeneity was present ( I 2 = 74%). Removing the study by Whittingham et al. ( 2009 ) reduced the heterogeneity to I 2 = 52% and resulted in an increase in the effect size ( n = 654; SMD, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.53; 0.87]; I ² = 52%). In this study, 12 of the 29 children were diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome, which may have resulted in children in this sample possessing relatively strong language abilities and milder difficulties with social interaction as compared to children with a diagnosis of ASD. Furthermore, 17 of the 29 parents did not seek help for their child’s emotional or behavioural problems, which suggests that these parents may have experienced relatively less stress than parents of children with ASD. Removing this study from the analysis meant that the remaining parents were a more homogenous group.

A graphical representation of the risk of bias assessments is presented in Figure 7 . Components assessing bias included blinding, allocation, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting and other potential sources of bias. The components were rated as being adequate, inadequate or unclear (Higgins 2008 ). The majority of the studies provided limited information regarding aspects of selection [specifically allocation concealment and sequence generation (randomisation)]. All of the included studies had a control group that consisted of no treatment or treatment as usual; therefore, blinding of participants to group allocation was not possible. Consequently, blinding of participants and personnel was the aspect that carried the highest risk of bias in the studies included in this review.

Risk of bias assessment for included studies according to Cochrane risk of bias tool.

This systematic review found evidence for parent training programmes being effective in enhancing parental PSE levels. This finding was statistically significant and thus we are able to conclude that PSE is a robust parent outcome measure to evaluate the effectiveness of parenting programmes. Parental self-efficacy levels had a significant increase and large effect size ( d = 0.60) for parents of children younger than 5 years of age, irrespective of the children’s diagnosis in the studies. Thus, data suggest that training parents of younger children are more beneficial in improving PSE outcomes than training initiated after the child is 5 years of age. The authors think that this may be because the skills taught to parents of younger children are based on developmental principles and consequently have a more direct impact on the developmental outcomes of children than skills taught to older parents. Parents who can see the positive impact that their newly acquired skill has on child outcomes would potentially be more likely to increase their belief (PSE) that they are able to provide the support that their child needs. These findings corroborate the increasing body of empirical evidence documenting the beneficial effects of early intervention on both parents’ and children’s outcomes (Guralnick 2017 ). These findings correspond to an earlier model that shows that heightened levels of PSE lead to subsequent heightened levels of success in the child (Ardelt & Eccles 2001 ). Thus, parenting programmes that increase PSE levels may also indirectly promote positive child outcomes (Ardelt & Eccles 2001 ; Coleman & Karraker 2003 ).

Parent training programmes were shown to be effective irrespective of whether they were administered by psychologists or other healthcare professionals. This finding may be of particular relevance in certain developing country contexts that do not have well-established professional training programmes for medical and allied health professionals and consequently may graduate a limited number of healthcare professionals on an annual basis. Task shifting has been suggested as a way to maximise access to interventions in contexts where there is a scarcity of trained professionals (Flisher et al. 2010 ; Rahman et al. 2008 ). In addition, there is an emerging body of evidence to suggest that alternative cadre professionals, such as rehabilitation care workers or community-based carers, are also able to effectively deliver parent training programmes (Flisher et al. 2010 ; Rahman et al. 2008 ; Reichow et al. 2013 ).

Finally, we wish to discuss the substantial amount of heterogeneity for the primary outcome measure. We employed the random-effects model throughout the analyses to account for this; however, in this meta-analysis, heterogeneity was particularly affected by one study. When removing the study by Whittingham et al. ( 2009 ), heterogeneity decreased considerably (the I 2 value decreased from 74% to 52%) and the effect size increased. Heterogeneity in this study may also have been attributable to the high risk of performance and detection bias present in this study. Alternatively, we propose that the high number of children with Asperger’s syndrome (12 out of 29) included in this study compared to the other included studies may have affected the heterogeneity. Characteristics of children with Asperger’s syndrome include relatively strong language abilities and milder difficulties with social interaction relative to children with a diagnosis of autism.

We used the risk of bias tool as per PRISMA recommendation (Moher et al. 2009 ). Areas of bias that were underreported included performance bias, detection and attrition bias, including allocation concealment. Authors should pay attention to how they report participant selection and randomisation procedures, as well as how they report incomplete outcome data. These biases should be carefully considered in the design and implementation of future RCTs involving parent training programmes.

While there have been systematic reviews supporting the effectiveness of parent training programmes for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Skotarczak and Lee ( 2015 ) as well as Tellegen and Sanders ( 2013 ), this review is the first to evaluate the effect these interventions have in changing the PSE levels. No language limitations were set and articles not written in English were translated and included if they met the inclusion criteria. Furthermore, when investigating parent training programmes we chose to include all forms of parent training, rather than selecting specific programmes as other systematic reviews, such as Tellegen and Sanders ( 2013 ), have previously done. It is interesting to note that non-licensed interventions were ineffective in enhancing PSE levels. The authors postulate that licenced interventions have undergone a more rigorous development process than non-licensed interventions. This may result in stronger theoretical underpinning relating to both the development of the content and intervention activities, as well as a more detailed process of stakeholder engagement. This finding creates an interesting tension for researchers in LAMI settings interested in designing parent training programmes. Licensed interventions may be better at enhancing PSE, but they are not always contextually relevant and may need to be adapted to be socially acceptable in developing country contexts.

Limitations of the study

One limitation of this review was the challenge we experienced in our efforts to provide summative estimates of the effectiveness of parent-based interventions, because of the varied nature (and poor description) of the different parenting interventions. In addition, numerous sources of bias were identified such as the fact that intention-to-treat analysis was not regularly used, which resulted in high levels of heterogeneity. We also acknowledge that these results only include PSE changes directly after intervention and do not include follow-up measurements of PSE. Furthermore, we acknowledge that our decision to include ADHD in this analysis of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities may receive criticism. However, recent research continues to highlight that ADHD and ASD share over 50% of their genetic factors (Van Steijn et al. 2012 ) and that two-thirds of individuals with ADHD display features of ASD (Mulligan et al. 2009 ). In this review, we collected PSE data that was measured subjectively using self-administered questionnaires. Nevertheless, self-report is typically the way in which this construct is measured in the field (Wittkowski et al. 2017 ). Lastly, it is still evident that none of the included studies was conducted in a LAMI country. As researchers in a developing country context, we view this as a significant constraint given the number of families in LAMI countries who have a child with a neurodevelopmental disability. Einfeld et al. ( 2012 ) conducted a review of interventions provided by parents. However, the authors feel that a systematic review of all of the caregiver skills-based interventions available in LAMI country contexts (irrespective of study design) would be helpful to obtain a clearer understanding of the existing evidence base and future research directions.

Implications for practice

The results of the current systematic review present evidence that parent training programmes have a significant effect on the enhancement of self-efficacy levels for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. The data offers three insights for healthcare providers who provide parent training. This review suggests that parents of children younger than 5 years of age are most likely to report a change in PSE levels following parent training. Secondly, data from this review confirm licenced interventions to have greater benefits to PSE than non-licenced interventions. This is not surprising as interventions with copyrights or trademark licencing have traditionally been developed and refined over several years, and their development is usually supported by published evidence of their efficacy. The final clinical implication is that healthcare practitioners other than psychologists are successfully able to implement training programmes that enhance PSE. For those researchers who are interested in service delivery in developing country contexts, this finding is particularly important, given the dearth of suitably trained healthcare practitioners in LAMI settings able to provide children diagnosed with neurodevelopmental disorders, and their families, with appropriate care.

As researchers within an African context, we recognise the need to pilot the efficacy of parenting interventions to change PSE levels in a LAMI context since, by the middle of this century, 40% of the world’s population of children will live in Africa (You et al. 2014 ). It is well known that Africa, as a continent, has limited access to resources and services to promote the health and development of its children. Therefore, it is important to consider how to reach the families of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities in these resource-constrained contexts. Consequently, we suggest that future research builds on this evidence base, which indicates that parents can be effectively trained by psychologists and allied health practitioners, by examining the effects of parent training provided by alternative cadre professionals.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Ms. Anke Rohwer and Ms. Syntia Nchangwi in translating non-English articles to English.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors’ contributions

M.H. conceptualised the study and all authors were responsible for designing the protocol. A.S.J.H. and M.H. selected the articles and extracted the data. A.S.J.H. performed the analysis under the critical guidance of M.E.E. and wrote the first draft. All authors critically revised successive drafts of the manuscripts and approved the final version.

How to cite this article: Hohlfeld, A.S.J., Harty, M. & Engel, M.E., 2018, ‘Parents of children with disabilities: A systematic review of parenting interventions and self-efficacy’, African Journal of Disability 7(0), a437. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v7i0.437

Note: This article is based on my mini-dissertation submitted to the Health Science Faculty of the University of Cape Town in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Public Health.

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Home > Books > Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention

Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood

Submitted: 04 July 2019 Reviewed: 14 August 2019 Published: 28 November 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89174

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Transition possibilities for adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood remain a complex issue and often neglected by the healthcare system and non-healthcare system. Given the responsibilities and roles that the healthcare system, non-healthcare system and families have to fulfil to address the transition possibility issue, the lack of knowledge, skills and resources negatively impacts on the transition possibility. In favour of situating adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood, the provision and development of working skills need to be prioritised. Transition possibilities are to be considered to all adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

• adolescents
• intellectual disabilities
• transition and possibility

Author Information

Rakgadi grace malapela *.

• University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae *

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected] and [email protected]

1. Introduction

Adolescence is a time of transition, involving multidimensional changes, namely biological, psychological and social [ 1 ]. These changes occur simultaneously and at different paces for each adolescent. Extant literature reports that the world is home to 1.2 billion adolescents aged between 10 and 19 years. Transition for adolescents is not only biological, but it also includes emotional transition [ 2 ]. The United Nations statistics has reported that there are more than 600 million people with disability and that 80 million live in Africa. There is also an estimation that more than 300,000 adolescents have intellectual disabilities. Majority of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs) adolescents would be excluded from acquiring some education and employment opportunities, as well as to suffer discrimination Nyangweso [ 3 ]. In addition, Meleis, Sawyer, Im, Messias, Schumacher [ 4 ] transition is perceived to be complicated. Adolescents with IDs will grow into adulthood as a result of improved healthcare and related technologies. Pandey and Agarwal [ 5 ] wrote that even though transitions are almost normal as they happen often, it is, however, very challenging for adolescents moving into adulthood especially for those with intellectual disabilities who may remain wholly dependent on their parents for emotional wellbeing.

This chapter provides a clear and detailed definition of the concept of transition, transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs), followed by governmental intervention. Transition possibilities for adolescents with ID are discussed under various roles of the government, healthcare workers and communities.

2. Transition as a concept

The concept of ‘transition’ has been in existence for more than three decades. It is among the concepts that are debated on its meaning and uses in literature. Transitions occur throughout life and are the processes faced by all humans, from birth, to adolescence and to adulthood, from being immature to mature and from being dependent to independent [ 6 ]. Transition is often associated with movement from a more shielded environment to a more self-directed environment. It is characterised by the ability to make decisions and to take care of oneself [ 7 ]. Transition also includes many adjustments that have to occur in life. Such events include leaving parents to boarding school, leaving home after parental death to an orphanage and all other life events that may render one to transit from one area to another [ 8 ]. Chick and Meleis [ 9 ] summarises transition by defining it as ‘a passage or movement from one state, condition or place to another’ (p239). Ally et al. [ 10 ] are of the opinion that transitions are aimed at improving one’s quality of life. It is a movement from one area of dependency to one area of independence, where one can do activities of daily living with minimal assistance. The authors further noted that it is about the cognitive and adaptive functioning of the individual. The process of transitioning is very difficult for most adolescents and could be particularly difficult for those adolescents with intellectual disabilities [ 11 ]. Shaw and DeLaet [ 12 ] define transition as a process, a point in time and a perception. As a process, transition needs people with ID their families, caregivers and the healthcare system to work together towards a common goal. The authors argue that transition entails the period starting from the anticipation of transition until the new status and change have been achieved. Lastly, the authors are of the view that transition depends on the individuals’ interpretations of what transition mean to them rather than being an event. Furthermore, this depends upon the setting in which the transition process takes place. Eighteen years is globally believed to be an age of maturity, and hence adolescents when they turn 18 are expected to have reached a certain level of independence and are able to make life decisions such as employment and career. In accordance with Patterson and Pegg [ 13 ] past history reflects that adolescents with IDs were devalued and not allowed to live independently. These assumptions and beliefs pose challenges for those who are intellectually disabled.

3. Transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities

Intellectual disability is characterised by several limitations in mental, emotional, cognitive and physical functioning. People with intellectual disabilities display very problematic behaviours that require attention at all times [ 14 ]. The definition of intellectual disability is also wrought with many controversies. To date there is no single definition that is acceptable for all. For instance, it is believed that people with intellectual disability’s social and practical skills differ significantly from what is accepted as normal by his or her society (American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2011 cited in Aldersey [ 15 ])). On the contrary, Werner [ 16 ] and Lancaster et al. [ 17 ] define ID as characterised by significant limitations in intellectual functioning with an IQ below 75 which originates before the age of 18 years. To this end, intellectual disability has been defined by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviours. They need more attention and assistance to cope with activities of daily living Shogren and Plotner [ 18 ].

The transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood is challenging in that they are expected to go through psychological and social maturation just like their able counterparts. There is a range of issues associated with transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood. They include rehabilitation and special education issues. However, in most countries, especially developing countries, they do not have structures in place to assist them achieve this milestone [ 8 ]. Most often, there are no programmes and policies suited for addressing their needs.

Disability is a developing concept in Africa as it is entrenched within the culture [ 19 ]. In the African context, disability is associated with supernatural causes that affect the way family members would treat the individual with ID [ 20 ]. Aldersey [ 15 ] posits that disability in Africa is a formation of one’s culture. Etiyiebo and Omiegbe [ 20 ] also support this view that culture defines an individual with intellectual disability as less than human. The two studies quoted above gave examples of other studies in Africa, such as Botswana, Zimbabwe and Cameroon, that define intellectual disability according to norms of the society they live in. These negative stereotypes in most of the African countries have led to the exclusion of individuals with ID from the mainstream society [ 21 ]. This has even led to some families to hide their adolescents allowing them to grow in isolation with no proper transition. It is therefore not surprising that in most of Africa, there is lack of relevant policies for individuals with ID, and this poses many challenges for them and their families. Most of these challenges relate to social, occupational and parental issues.

3.1 Social challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disability

Lack of support and labelling of individuals with ID by communities are some of the challenges that affect adolescents with ID. These lead to isolation and loneliness. Other studies [ 2 , 22 , 23 ] also reported that individuals with ID are ridiculed, not supported and unaccepted by the society they live in. Stigma and discrimination, especially in African countries where disability is associated with witchcraft and other supernatural causes, influence the way the individuals with ID are treated. Incidences of individuals with ID being locked in the houses and hidden from the larger society are still rife in some parts of Africa [ 24 ].

Adolescents with ID may not even have the opportunity to volunteer for some activities in their communities. Friendships and peer interactions are limited mostly because other peers with no ID may react negatively towards those with ID, and it is because they have differing conceptions of friendships [ 25 ].

3.2 Occupational challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities

Adolescents with ID face many challenges, especially in developing countries. There are very few schools open to adolescents with ID. The majority of them end at the seventh grade. This is especially true if they come from poor families who may not afford few private schools. In a study by Malapela [ 26 ], she found that out of the 25 adolescents admitted in two special schools in South Africa, only one of them was given a vocational job after completion. In other countries, there are social grants with which these individuals and their families depend on, whereas in other countries where there are no disability grants, their livelihood is dependent on their parents and families. Pandey and Agarwal [ 5 ] reported that adolescents with ID are most likely not to be employed and less likely to complete secondary education.

3.3 Leisure challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities

It is generally believed that leisure promotes emotional and psychological wellbeing for individuals with ID [ 27 ]. Leisure activities develop general skills and adaptive behaviours. However, in most countries leisure activities for individuals with ID are limited or non-existent Majoko [ 28 ]. Lack of leisure or recreational activities leave the individual with ID to have television as an only option. For some who do not have television, they spend most of the time in the house watching movements of their people depending on the degree of their disability. For some, parents may not allow their adolescents with ID to play with others for fear that they would be hurt, mocked or ridiculed. Jerome, Frantino and Sturmey [ 29 ] see this as being overprotective, which does not benefit the individual with ID as taking risks of being hurt is part of growing up. All these are daily challenges faced by these individuals.

3.4 Parental challenges

Literature has reported stress and depression for parents of adolescents with ID. Parents experience caregiver burden because in most cases they are left alone to care for their adolescents with no external assistance. In most instances, the parents are responsible for attending to all the activities of daily living for their adolescents with ID. A study conducted in United Kingdom by Rogers [ 30 ] reported that parenting an individual with intellectual disability incapacitates the whole family. It puts more pressure and burden on the family as more attention is needed from parents and mothers of these individuals to assist them to achieve activities of daily living including bathing, feeding, mobility, toilet training, socialising and others. The caregiver burden is aggravated by lack of professional support and unavailability of services. The American Psychological Association (2016) is of the view that where there is support and services the caregiver burden would be lessened. In other countries, where there is absence of such facilities or the lack of knowledge about their existence, then parental stress can be exacerbated [ 26 ].

4. Governmental interventions

Transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood has been a concern not just for researchers but for national governments as well. Most governments encourage the principle of inclusion in schools and employment [ 7 ]. In some instances, policies have been developed that encourage inclusion and provide more opportunities for adolescents with ID aiming at maximising their interaction with the wider community.

In South Africa, for instance, a number of legislative regulations and policy framework have been developed to protect individuals with intellectual disabilities from exploitation, vulnerability and discrimination. However, numerous concerns and challenges have been reported regarding their care, treatment and rehabilitation that are detrimental to their general wellbeing and their future prospects. According to the policy guidelines on child and adolescent mental health and reconstruction and development programme (RDP), adolescents with ID are still faced by many challenges in their transition to adulthood. It is for this reason that transition possibilities need to be prioritised.

The Mental Health Care Act No.17 of 2002 that directs care, treatment and rehabilitation of adolescents with intellectual disabilities states that individuals with ID have the right to a sheltered employment and fair treatment. However, the demands of this act have not been realised fully, and this impacts negatively on their transition.

Given all the limitations that affect the transition possibilities, proper understanding of transition possibilities in the context of intellectual disabilities needs urgent attention. There must be a change that would have positive impact in the lives of individuals with ID. These changes must take cognisance of their level of mental, physical, social and emotional functioning.

5. Transition possibilities

There are numerous transition possibilities that could be done to assist adolescents with ID. Most of these possibilities centre on what governments and healthcare workers can do to mitigate the many challenges associated with their transitions. The possibilities for governments are on policy development and involvement of other stakeholders. For healthcare workers, the main theme is on educating different players such as parents, families and communities.

6. The role of governments

Poor outcomes for adolescents with ID on employment, education and social activities call for an active path for changing the post high school scenery. Governments can strive to make transition easier by ensuring structures that accommodate adolescents with ID are in place. Firstly, governments should ensure that all the schools from primary to secondary have facilities for special education. Such an arrangement will ensure that adolescents with ID and those without ID are taught in the same schools. Arrangements could be made that in such schools there will exist common courses that are taken together such as physical education. This will have multiple benefits for all. Adolescents with no ID will be able to accept those with ID and can understand their shortcomings and be able to assist them.

Firm friendships can be built at this stage, and this would ensure that adolescents with IDs leisure time are well taken care of [ 5 ]. The authors reported that adolescents with ID believe that they are just like others and consider themselves able to interact with peers with no ID. Research by Kurth and Mastergeorge [ 31 ] suggest that inclusive education has more enhanced academic results for students with disabilities.

The use of technology in such schools will also improve the academic outcomes for students with ID. Therefore, governments should strive to make all this available for adolescents with ID. Maxey and Beckett [ 7 ] posit that special education which is in the same environment with the mainstream education plays a vital role on how adolescents with ID are perceived by both the teachers and their peers. Currently in most countries, especially in developing countries, there are very few special schools, hence governments should be encouraged to build some and make them inclusive.

Governments can also expand employment opportunities for adolescents with ID. These they could do through collaborating with employment agencies. A study done by Plotner and Mashall [ 32 ] in the United States found that 28.4% of adults with ID were in formal employment compared to 71% of those adults without ID. However, in developing countries the statistics would even be lower. Adolescents with ID should be taught courses that would link them with particular employment opportunities.

Community centres that are open for adolescents with ID need to be in place. The government can achieve this by forming partnerships with community agencies. The benefit of this would be that it would allow for integration of adolescents with ID into the community. Pallisera et al. [ 33 ] argued that transition partnerships and collaboration are key factors in the facilitation and fostering of the transition process. This means an inclusion of a wide range of professionals, agencies, centres or services throughout the transition process.

Healthcare services are fragmented in most countries. For adolescents with ID, this would compound the problem of caregivers; hence, the governments need to bring them together. In most countries there are no services tailored for adolescents. There are health services for children and for adults, and there are very few for adolescents such as youth centres. This gap in service provision should be attended to, and youth-friendly services and skill centres should be made available even for adolescents with ID.

7. The role of healthcare workers

In order to ensure successful healthy transitions in healthcare, partnership work with families, communities, societies, education and other relevant stakeholders is needed. Ramalhal et al. [ 34 ] assert that nurses have the responsibility to assist individuals and their families to deal with the transition process. On the contrary, Shaw and DeLaet [ 12 ] argue that the physicians should take the first critical step to improve the transition process to adult-oriented healthcare. According to Meleis’ Transition Theory, nurses are the partners of individuals and their families as they will be able to follow changes and outcomes regarding the transition process.

Healthcare workers are also responsible for educating parents on the adolescent’s condition and what parents should expect. This would lessen the stress and ensure that parents know what to do with their adolescents. Education should focus on the adolescent behaviour. This would help parents to develop healthy relationships with their adolescent. This education should involve not just primary caregivers but extended family such as siblings, grandparents, aunts and other significant parties.

Healthcare workers are also charged with explaining to families about the level and scope of healthcare services that are available for such individuals. In most cases, families get confused because they are not aware of services that are available to adolescents with ID. Healthcare workers can facilitate their formation so that families can support and encourage each other.

Families should also be educated on the importance of a friendly, safe and stimulating environment to enable adolescents with ID to maximise their potentials and to cushion emotional and behavioural challenges [ 26 ]. Internet should be used where possible, and computer skills should be developed. Seal [ 35 ] and Seal and Pockney [ 36 ] hold a strong view that the use of the Internet allows individuals with ID to express themselves.

Provision of counselling is another viable transition possibility [ 26 ]. Individuals with ID should be counselled if they get frustrated in their inability to solve problems and be encouraged if they are able to solve problems on their own. Healthcare in most countries is very fragmented; healthcare workers should support their integration so that counselling is offered with other services. This would ensure that individuals with ID receive total quality care when is needed.

In a study by Malapela [ 26 ], it was found that the majority of parents lacked the knowledge and skill to care for their adolescents with ID. The study recommended that educating caregivers on the care of their adolescents and knowledge about their limitations would promote positive transition outcomes.

8. The role of communities

Teaching communities and socialisation of the intellectually disabled children into the community are the key factors that form the basis for assisting adolescents with IDs transition into adulthood. If communities understand the abilities and limitations of adolescents with ID, they would have a nondiscriminatory attitude that would assist in the transition outcomes for individuals with ID. A non-judgemental and nondiscriminatory attitude is key towards achieving healthy transition experience.

Community partnerships with parents and professionals would relieve parents from being alone in the care of their intellectually disabled. Therefore, working together as a team would ensure a healthy transition of individuals with ID. For transition to bring about change and difference, individuals, their families and health and non-healthcare professionals should make necessary efforts and changes that enable these individuals and their families to adapt to their new roles and expectations. A community approach is necessary to assist these individuals, their families and their caregivers adapt to new changes and routines. Therefore, community education is essential to ensure that transition process promote positive experiences.

More community resources should be available and accessible to support these individuals and their families during the transition experience and process.

9. Conclusion

Positive transition of adolescents with ID would ensure improvement of quality of life for individuals with ID. Governments and other stakeholders need to further develop the policy framework needed to assist individuals with ID and related interventions. Education, employment and leisure are key to a fruitful integration of individuals with ID in the mainstream society. Studies quoted in this chapter support those individuals with ID to have the same opportunities as for all individuals without ID. Prioritisation of provision and development of working skills are the determining factors for facilitating transition of adolescents with IDs into adulthood. The need for further research is necessary to ensure that adolescent with ID can live an independent life.

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Faux, S. A., and Wendy M. Nehring. "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2010. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/6713.

Murray, Meghan. "Developmental Disabilities and Family Dynamics." Cleveland State University / OhioLINK, 2017. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=csu1495883075851037.

Smith, Heather Kathleen. "Church attendance of adults with developmental disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1997. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1362.

Nowak, Reneé André. "Self-determination skills used by individuals with developmental disabilities : perceptions of adults with developmental disabilities and advocates /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/7910.

Cox, Judith 1959. "Children with developmental disabilities : finding permanent homes." Thesis, McGill University, 2006. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=99561.

Lees-Warley, Gemma T. "Deliberate firesetting by adults with developmental disabilities." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2014. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/5180/.

Neely-Barnes, Susan L. "Consumer choice in developmental disability services : assessing the impact on quality of life indicators /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/8135.

Viola, Teresa. "Remediating behaviour problems in children with developmental disabilities." Thesis, McGill University, 2006. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=102228.

Smith, Matthew S. "Employment affect of working adults with developmental disabilities." Thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2014. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=1526955.

The unemployment rate for people with developmental disabilities is almost 7 times higher than the current national unemployment statistics. Research indicates that the majority of those with developmental disabilities do wish to work and moreover, have many skills and talents that organizations can benefit from. This paper aims to use common industrial and organizational psychological measures in a unique population--developmentally disabled adults. Specifically, the present study examines the job satisfaction, affective commitment, and turnover intentions of adults with developmental disabilities from the Harbor Regional Center and Regional Center of Orange in Southern California. This is the first research h that examines affective feelings about employment in the developmentally disabled population in Los Angeles and Orange counties. Results from the study show that adults with developmental disabilities had higher than expected job satisfaction and affective commitment towards their job. They also had lower turnover intentions than expected.

Nolting, Claudia. "Resilience in families of children with developmental disabilities." Thesis, Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/4371.

Graves, Marlena La Nae, and Tracy Ann Schroeder. "An exploratory study of single parents raising a child with developmental disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2001. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1833.

Lau, Wai-yee Aster, and 劉慧儀. "Factors associated with children having developmental concerns from parents and physicians: a retrospectivecohort study." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2010. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B45172614.

Hall, Scott Stuart. "The early development of self-injurious behaviour in children with developmental disabilities." Thesis, King's College London (University of London), 1997. https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-early-development-of-selfinjurious-behaviour-in-children-with-developmental-disabilities(a75d5025-1581-480b-b2d1-b4622833f811).html.

Brown, Kathleen Susan. "Factors that influence the development of supports among adults with developmental disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1994. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/895.

Shepherd, Mark Stephen. "Recognizing adult learning disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2000. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/3029.

Quigley, Jennifer. "Let's work| Employment experiences of adults with developmental disabilities." Thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2014. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=1569589.

The present study investigated the employment experiences of adults with mild developmental disabilities. The study's sample consisted of 45 participants with developmental disabilities who were over the age of 18. Participants were recruited from two Regional Centers in Southern California and either phone interviews or in-person interviews were conducted.

A structured interview protocol examined each participant's current work experience, along with several items exploring facilitators and obstacles to employment. Data from this qualitative investigation were organized into categories using inductive content analysis. Descriptive statistics were computed for quantitative items. Overall, it was discovered that: participants found money as the most rewarding aspect of employment, relied on outside support in obtaining and maintaining employment and found few obstacles of which to overcome, worked with others with developmental disabilities, and utilized workplace supports in entry level positions making an average wage of $8.92 a hour during a 20.72 hour work week.

Dorrance, Kristin. "Aging with Developmental Disabilities: Implications for Long-term Care." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/32205.

Paquette, Dana M. "The physical activity patterns of adults with developmental disabilities." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1997. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq22374.pdf.

Woodford, Lynn. "Well-being in parents of adults with developmental disabilities." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1998. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0023/MQ31272.pdf.

Ericson, Kristine I. "Factors affecting witness capacity in individuals with developmental disabilities." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0024/NQ39263.pdf.

Sheppard-Jones, Kathleen. "QUALITY OF LIFE DIMENSIONS FOR ADULTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES." UKnowledge, 2003. http://uknowledge.uky.edu/gradschool_diss/335.

Palmer, Tyler Jones Ty. "CREATING COMMUNITYAMONG ADULTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES IN APPALACHIA OHIO." Marietta College / OhioLINK, 2005. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=marietta1116375458.

Kobe, Frank H. III. "Depression in Children with Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities." The Ohio State University, 1991. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1392812462.

Kobe, Frank H. "Depression in children with mental retardation and developmental disabilities /." The Ohio State University, 1991. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487688507504852.

Broadbent, Dianna L. Payne. "Planning for the Future of Individuals with Developmental Disabilities." DigitalCommons@USU, 2003. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/2667.

Onyenwe, Sarah Musu. "Sexual History Screening Tools For Individuals With Developmental Disabilities." ScholarWorks, 2018. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/5768.

Kreiner, Janice Loring. "Development of a Vocabulary-Free Leisure Interest Assessment Instrument for Individuals with Severe Developmental Disabilities and Communication Difficulties." Kent State University / OhioLINK, 2005. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1122663012.

Matlock, Scott T. "Development of an Interpersonal Aggression Scale for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities." The Ohio State University, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1211912914.

Atkins, Christine. "Just little things nurses' perceptions of quality of life for people with severe multiple impairments /." Connect to full text, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/395.

Seibert, Susan R. "Setting the standards for the future the role of national quality enhancement programs in services for people with developmental disabilities/." Menomonie, WI : University of Wisconsin--Stout, 2007. http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/thesis/2007/2007seiberts.pdf.

Schreck, Kimberly Anne. "Preliminary analysis of sleep disorders in children with developmental disabilities." The Ohio State University, 1997. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1392312368.

Ritzema, Anne Marie. "Stress in parents of children with developmental disabilities over time." Thesis, McGill University, 2010. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=94922.

Chan, Kwok-ying. "Stress and coping in parents of children with developmental disabilities." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1996. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B29697190.

Clayton, Lynn E. "Intervention Settings for Children with Cochlear Implants and Developmental Disabilities." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1243189468.

Buchmeier, Amanda. "Varied and Novel Activity Selection by Adults with Developmental Disabilities." OpenSIUC, 2012. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/theses/965.

Nehring, Wendy M., American Nurses Association, and Nursing Division of the American Association on Mental Retardation. "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2013. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu_books/105.

Mims, Pamela J., Ann Meyer, Leah Wood, and Lynn Ahlgrim-Delzell. "Supporting Literacy Achievement for Students with Developmental Disabilities through Technology." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2016. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/182.

Mims, Pamela J. "Increasing Literacy Outcomes for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2017. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/3238.

Groskreutz, Nicole Christine. "Generalization of Negatively Reinforced Mands in Children with Developmental Disabilities." DigitalCommons@USU, 2012. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/1268.

Harwood, Kristine Annette. "Agency influence on best practices with adults with developmental disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2000. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1632.

Claytor, Joanne Sue. "Caregivers perceptions of permanency planning for adults with developmental disabilities." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2000. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1637.

Orozco, Danielle Marie. "JOB READINESS OF SOCIAL WORKERS SERVING INDIVIDUALS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2019. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/809.

Colangelo, Doreen Marie. "Correlates of Developmental Disabilities Direct Service Professionals' High Turnover Rate." ScholarWorks, 2015. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/1881.

Gilliam, Jacqueline Bridget. "IMPLEMENTATION OF PEAK RELATIONAL TRAINING SYSTEM FOR ADULTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES." OpenSIUC, 2014. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/theses/1537.

Kearney, Penelope M., of Western Sydney Nepean University, and Faculty of Nursing and Health Studies. "Between joy and sorrow : being the parent of a child with a developmental disability." THESIS_FNHS_XXX_Kearney_P.xml, 1996. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/793.

Thompson, Laura. "The future of services for individuals with developmental disabilities| An analysis of changes presented by the new york state office of people with developmental disabilities." Thesis, State University of New York Empire State College, 2014. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=1555983.

This project explores the historic, current and future services for individuals with developmental disabilities in New York State in a series of related studies presented in three chapters. The first chapter examines the history of how modern services for individuals with developmental disabilities were established. The second chapter examines the social, economic and political factors that are driving the first major changes in services for individuals with developmental disabilities since the early 1970's. The first two chapters will demonstrate similar trends that caused major changes in the 1970's and the major changes currently happening in service delivery. The final chapter examines the proposed services that will be offered to individuals in New York State, the implementation of the new services, potential barriers to implementation and both the intended and unintended consequences of the new services.

Cybulski, Sarah. "Life Skill Development in Athletes with Intellectual Disabilities: The Strategies and Learning Pathways of Special Olympics Coaches." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/31791.

Boseovski, Janet J. "Domain general versus domain specific mechanisms in theory of mind : a comparison of individuals with autism, developmental delay, and typical development." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0020/MQ54981.pdf.

Yu, Ka-ki Kevin, and 余嘉棋. "Neuroimaging meta-analysis in neurodevelopmental disorders." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2011. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B47753171.

WOOLFOLK, AVERY. "CINCINNATI CENTER FOR DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS (CCDD): A CASE STUDY IN INSURING UNINSURED CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2001. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin992433154.

Honors Thesis

Students can substitute one of the course requirements for an honors thesis focused on disability. The thesis can be completed as an individually contracted thesis with a faculty member or through a thesis seminar . For the purposes of DDHS, the thesis can be a portfolio or research manuscript. You are encouraged to speak with your academic advisor to ensure that your thesis will also meet expectations for departmental honors, if applicable. Students should consult the DDHS program director to ensure their thesis topic is sufficiently focused on disability to substitute a course requirement.

THESIS SEMINARS

Below, you will find information on thesis seminars that are most relevant to DDHS students. The thesis seminar is an alternative to an individually contracted thesis. The end product can be the same, but the thesis seminar guides you through the process within a cohort. Unlike the individually contracted thesis option, you do not have to submit a proposal through PATHS for approval ahead of time. Instructor permission is typically required for registration in a thesis seminar. Almost all thesis seminars are full-year courses (4 credits per semester).

Readings and Research in Disability (HONORS 499CJ/DJ)

Instructor:  Ashley Woodman, Senior Lecturer, Psychological and Brain Sciences

Credits:  4 credits Fall, 4 credits Spring

To Enroll:  Instructor Consent required. Please e-mail  [email protected]  to schedule a meeting.

Description: In this course, students will explore disability through theory and research. Students will be introduced to conceptualizations of disability, models of disability, and historical perspectives as well as the intersection of disability with other social identities such as gender, sexuality, and race/ethnicity. First, students will be introduced to the definition and meaning of disability. Disability is a complex identity that can be viewed from a variety of social, cultural, historical, legal and political perspectives. Students will be introduced to conceptualizations of disability, models of disability, and historical perspectives as well as the intersection of disability with other social identities such as gender, sexuality, and race/ethnicity. Students will review and discuss the challenges of conducting research with people with disabilities. Students will read and critique contemporary research involving people with disabilities as well as research on perceptions of disability among people with and without disabilities. Throughout the course, students will be scaffolded to design and implement an independent research project related to disability. Students are encouraged to use existing, publicly available data, but may also collect their own data within the UMass or broader community. Students will be advised on an individual basis to design a research project that is ethical, realistic given time and resource constraints, and a novel contribution to the field.

Community Action for Social Change (SRVCLRNG 499C/D)

Instructor:  Ellen Correa, Senior Lecturer, Civic Engagement & Services Learning (CESL)

To Enroll:  Instructor Consent required. Please e-mail  [email protected]  to schedule a meeting to discuss your experience and background in civic/community engagement.

Description: This two-semester Honors Thesis Seminar is designed for seniors in the Commonwealth Honors College with recent experience in service-learning and/or community engagement who wish to deepen their praxis – the combination of theory and practice – within their chosen area of community work. Throughout the Fall and Spring semesters, students work both in the classroom and with a self-selected community partner and develop a collaborative civic/community engagement project. The civic/community engagement project will address a real-world issue or problem associated with the work of the community organization, group, or constituency. Guided by their community partner, students will complete a project that addresses an issue of justice, equity, or social support for a particular constituency. Through the auspices of the class and under the direction of the community partner advisor, students will define and address the issue or problem, as well as communicate its significance to a public audience.

Student Health, Wellbeing & Campus Spaces (HONORS 499CP/DP)

Instructor:  Caryn Brause, Associate Professor of Architecture

To Enroll:  Instructor Consent required. Please contact  [email protected]  stating the reason for your interest in the course and provide a one-page writing sample.

Description: This two-semester, 8-credit Interdisciplinary Honors Thesis Seminar, we will explore current thinking on health and wellbeing in the built environment, with a focus on campus environments. Consideration of the impact of the built environment on health and well-being is an increasingly important priority in the design fields as well as in conversations concerning equity, public policy, public health, and education. These concerns are interrelated with issues of sustainability, resilience, and planetary wellbeing. We will read scholarly and practice literature, and examine case studies that center these topics, examine how different entities define, assess, and evaluate wellbeing in the built environment, and critically consider the challenges and opportunities for inclusively shaping campus environments. We will apply environmental theories, inquiry methods, and assessment strategies to understand the ways in which campus community members use and inhabit higher educational spaces and to propose improvements that support diverse student learning, development, and wellbeing.

Students from various majors are welcome – there are many topics ripe for student exploration, through writing, archival research, design and creative projects, and qualitative and quantitative studies. Workshops associated with research methods, writing, graphics, presentation skills, and other topics will be organized to align with Honors Thesis and Undergraduate Research Conference deadlines. Students will develop individual research proposals in the Fall and complete their Honors Theses in the Spring.

Health and Health Care Inequality in the United States (POLISCI 499CD/DD)

Instructor: Dean Robinson, Associate Professor, Political Science

Credits:  POLISCI 499C for 4 credits in fall and POLISCI 499D for 4 credits in spring.

To Enroll:  Instructor Consent Required. Contact  [email protected] .

Description: This course will help students develop capstone research topics concerning health inequality in the United States. Disadvantaged populations—racial minorities and people of lower socioeconomic status— face a higher burden of disease and death than their white, and more affluent, counterparts do. After an overview of the health care system in the United States compared to those of four other advanced, industrial democracies, this course will then consider insights from social epidemiology about the factors that drive disparities in health outcomes. Social epidemiologists show that lower social status consistently predicts health status today and in the past. The mechanism is thought to be the deleterious consequences of chronic stress, which impairs immune function over time. Numerous studies also show that the subjective experience of racial discrimination is bad for health. Students will have an opportunity to develop research topics that consider the relative health disadvantage of blacks and other minority populations, as well as why white Americans tend to do worse than their European counterparts. The answers reflect problems of the US health care system, and relate to the broader “social determinants” of illness and disease. These, in turn, ultimately reflect political inequalities that affect the pattern of health for Americans in general. The focus material for this part of the class will emphasis political and policy determinants of health and other indicators. We will facilitate this discussion by first revisiting the health disadvantage Americans experience relative to their wealthy nation counterparts.

PAST HONORS THESES

Check out the list of previously completed honors theses .

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160 Disabilities Topics for Research Papers & Essays

Looking for interesting disability topics for a research paper or project? This field is hot, controversial, and definitely worth studying!

🏆 Best Disability Topics for Research Papers

👍 disability essay topics, 📑 research questions about disabilities, 🎓 good research topics about disabilities.

The disability study field includes the issues of physical, mental, and learning disabilities, as well as the problem of discrimination. In this article, we’ve gathered great disability essay topics & research questions, as well as disability topics to talk about. We hope that our collection will inspire you.

• Case Study of a Child with Intellectual Disability It is crucial to integrate the input of a learning coach into the school curriculum to encourage the participation of Meagan’s parents in his educational endeavors.
• Students With Disabilities in Higher Education Institutions Accommodations for students depend on the disability type that the student has, and whether the disability allows the student to get an accommodation in the institution.
• Government Grants for People With Disabilities The paper will be based on the conditions of disabled people and the federal or state grants that they could receive in order to facilitate changes in their health and work.
• Sociocultural Barriers for People With Disabilities On the other hand, stigmatization, stereotyping and prejudice have been highlighted as the barriers to social inclusion of people with disabilities in society.
• Managing Students With Disabilities Instructional issues that are encountered in education are those arising due to the inability of the students to acquire, maintain, and relate the skills that are learned in class to other settings within and outside […]
• Women, Development and Disabilities The mission of the organization is to enhance the voice of women in society and influence other organizations that advocate for women rights.
• The Problems of Children With Disabilities and Possible Ways of Solution It is very important for disabled people to be on the same level with others in the conditions that compensate the deviations in the development and constraints of the abilities in learning.
• Children With Disabilities in Education By the end of the experiment the student will demonstrate his ability to understand the information, to discuss it, and to reflect his ideas in writing.
• Children With Learning Disabilities The following research questions will be used in achieving the objectives: What is the role of learning disabilities in affecting the ability of the students to learn?
• Learning Disabilities: Differentiating ADHD and EBD As for the most appropriate setting, it is possible to seat the child near the teacher. It is possible to provide instructions with the help of visual aids.
• Employees With Disabilities and Their Workplace Behavior In H3, the authors found that employees with disabilities remained loyal and committed to work and were satisfied with their job.
• Mental Disabilities: Characteristics and Causes TBIs are caused by an impact of the head against a blunt object or from its penetration by a sharp object; it often results from vehicle accidents. Autism is a developmental disorder that influences the […]
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• Lawsuits Regarding College Students With Disabilities Abuse is one of the factors considered to have discouraged physically challenged students from pursuing their academic careers.
• Living with Disabilities from an Insider’s Perspective Additionally, Armendariz was able to use a prosthetic arm to assist with her disability which she recalled as being helpful before it led to severe negativity from her peers at the time.
• Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) There is a commission in the US that fights for the rights of people with disabilities when it comes to employment.
• Poems with Disabilities by Jim Ferris This is good evidence for the argument of the need to eliminate the issue of ableism. Language evolves gradually, and countering the issue of ableism is a long-term goal.
• Recreational Activities for People with Disabilities Even the number of customized recreational equipments should be increased so as to enable the people with disabilities to choose from.
• Peer Buddy Programs for Students With Disabilities In the essay, the author will provide recommendations with regard to how the peer buddy program can be successfully implemented in schools in the future. The aim is to enhance the success of the peer […]
• The Ohio Department of Developmental Disabilities Policy The paper outlines the proper policy and procedure of incident reporting and investigation and thus, provides how to become an agent for the Ohio Department of Developmental Disabilities and satisfy individuals receiving services.
• Computer-Based Technologies That Assist People With Disabilities The visually impaired To assist the visually impaired to use computers, there are Braille computer keyboards and Braille display to enable them to enter information and read it. Most of these devices are very expensive […]
• People With Disabilities and Their Employment Issues The major similarity between the perceptions of older people and individuals with disabilities is based on the belief that they are slow and could slow down the other workers and the idea that the managers […]
• People With Disabilities in the Frida Movie After the accident, her father bought her a canvas that she would use for painting because she loved art and was an artist, helping her cope with her disability.
• Safety Evacuation for People with Disabilities First, before a disaster occurs, the government should be aware of the number of individuals in the scenario and keep track of them to verify the figures are correct.
• Individuals with Disabilities: Social Misconceptions One of the misconceptions I noticed is the community’s attitudes to people with disability. Community views about individuals with disabilities can also be impacted by features of the person with a disability unrelated to the […]
• Individuals With Disabilities: Prejudice and Discrimination I researched that people with persistent medical or physical disorders, such as cerebral palsy or multiple sclerosis, who have speech, articulation, or communication impairments, for example, are sometimes seen as having an intellectual deficiency. Corey […]
• Special Olympics and Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities Together with partners, the Special Olympics aspires to improve the health outcomes for people with physical and mental disabilities to close the gap with the healthy population who are more advantaged in terms of access […]
• Ohio Department of Developmental Disabilities’ Staff Training Specifically, the introduction of the assessment modules for the evaluation of the staff members’ compliance with the set requirements will be enacted.
• The Quality of the Working Environment for Persons With Disabilities The progressive introduction of new practices more tolerant of the disabled will be carried out at every stage of the work cycle and in every segment of the corporation as a connected infrastructure.
• Developmental Disabilities: Best Practice and Support Family therapy and the creation of support groups seem to be an effective method for children with disabilities and their environment.
• Bronx Developmental Disabilities Council: Organization Assessment During events, council, and committee meetings, the organization provides printed materials with information on disability and the prevention of social distancing of people with disabilities.
• Assistive Technologies for Individuals with Disabilities A rehabilitation consultant will be able to recommend this equipment to people who are acutely worried about the inability to use a computer and the Internet to ensure a comfortable life.
• Smart Farms Hiring People with Disabilities Although Smart Farms is a non-profit organization and benefits from donations, the workers play their role in income generation by working on the farms and sales.
• Americans with Disabilities Act and Nursing Practice Acts such as the Americans with Disabilities Act affect not only the political and legal environment in a country but also the rights and responsibilities of nurses.
• Life of Individuals Dealing with Disabilities The child’s image hitting the t-ball also showcased a powerful issue, that disabled individuals should be treated similarly to other people and given equal opportunities to give them the chance to perform optimally.
• Partnership for People with Disabilities’ Mission The mission of this organization is to partner with stakeholders both in the intellectual and developmental disability community and other interested groups at Virginia Commonwealth University. The organization was founded in 1985 to better people’s […]
• The Experience of Parents of Children With Disabilities Enhancing support for the mental well-being of parents of children with a disability: developing a resource based on the perspectives of parents and professionals.
• Healthcare Disparities in People With Disabilities In addition to health care disparities, such as poor access to care, including preventive one, and dependency, people with disabilities also face higher morbidity and lack of insurance.
• Employment for People With Disabilities Accommodation is also considered to be a restructuring of work and the attraction of other personnel to help in adaptation – as it should have happened with Adele.
• Laws Protecting the Rights of People With Disabilities The aim of this essay is to research the law that protects the rights of people with disabilities in the context of sporting events.
• People With Disabilities in Society I think that these people are powerful and inspiring, as they prove to the world that it is possible to live life to the fullest with a disability.
• People With Disabilities and Social Work Moreover, there is a tendency towards the rise in the number of such people because of the deterioration of the situation and the growing number of environmental concerns.
• Alternate Assessments for Students With Learning Disabilities The problem is that many school districts experience difficulties with proposing adequate formative and summative assessments for those students who require special attention.
• People with Disabilities’ Problem of Employment Although truck driving can be a stressful job, it is not evident if it is true, and thus, it is important for John to experience the job-related himself and determine whether he can handle it. […]
• Living with Disabilities in the Nondisabled World A variety of laws, initiatives, and regulations are currently implemented to ensure simpler and less costly access to information resources and the functionality of a device.
• United Arab Emirates Schools: Students With Learning Disabilities The current UAE public school environment does not allow for the provision of the necessary skills due to the lack of a proper teaching strategy.
• Workplace and People With Disabilities The purpose of the research is to make coherent and accurate observations in regards to the usefulness of the given method in improving the overall attitudes of people and organizations toward people with disabilities.
• Career Counseling for People With Disabilities To sufficiently research, the issue of career counseling for individuals with disabilities in the academic press, a list of journals that offer such information was developed.
• Genetic Modification and Implicit Bias Against People With Disabilities There is also a factor of disabilities that are life-threatening to a child, or illnesses that may be able to be fatal within the first few years of life.
• Impact of Social Darwinism on the Perception of Human Disabilities In addition, connecting behavior such as the likeliness of criminality to genetics is incorrect and damaging not only to the individual but to a community and society as a whole.
• Music Therapy for Children With Learning Disabilities This review includes the evidence supporting music therapy as an effective strategy for promoting auditory, communication, and socio-emotional progression in children with ASD.
• Healthcare Professionals: Individuals With Developmental Disabilities The presentation provide an overview of relevant health related issues in individuals with developmental disabilities and how it relates to the group of professionals assigned.
• Protection for Persons With Disabilities and Their Service Animals Additionally, it must be trained to give assistance to a person with disability. Service animals that can be selected to assist persons with disability must be either a dog or a miniature horse.
• Death Penalty: Juveniles and Mental Disabilities Consequently, the Eight Amendment should dismiss the death penalty for this category and state laws must implement recommendations of the National Alliance on Mental Illness, the American Psychological Association, and the American Bar Association that […]
• The Prevalence, Effects and Challenges of Developmental Disabilities While the increase in the number of people with developmental disabilities is attributed to the rising numbers of the aging population, disabilities may arise in childhood and affect the entire lives of people.
• Community Disability Awareness Program: Elderly Women With Disabilities A measurable outcome in the program’s success will be a decline in the rate of crime related to elderly women with disabilities.
• The Understanding of Needs of People With Learning Disabilities Despite several problems in the overall design of the strategy that can be used to improve the nursing services for PLD, Drozd and Clinch make a very valid point by stressing the significance of a […]
• Addressing the Needs of People With Learning Disabilities As a student aiming at becoming a Nurse Practitioner, I am currently focusing on the exploration of the options for managing the work of the nursing staff, as well as seeking the opportunities for improving […]
• Discrimination Against Customers With Disabilities The role of the law is to regulate such cases and to provide necessary tools for both sides to prove their point of view.
• Elderly Women with Disabilities: Problems and Needs Despite the economic crisis, the cost of medical care has also increased due to the rise in the number of lawsuits filed against the physicians of the state.
• Relationship Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being Among Greek People With Physical Disabilities In the light of this lack of knowledge, the present study attempts to explore the degree of relationship satisfaction in connection with the way handicapped people deal with the challenges of romantic involvement, as well […]
• Communication and People With Disabilities The bathrooms were close to the food court; moreover, there were special handle bars which helped to transfer to the commode and, at this, the height of the commode was almost the same as the […]
• Music Therapy as a Related Service for Students With Disabilities From a neuroscientific perspective, how would music intervention improve classroom behaviors and academic outcomes of students with ADHD as a way to inform policy-makers of the importance of music therapy as a related service?
• Problem Behaviors in Intellectual Disabilities Community The proposed quality designed study will evaluate the behavior of people with intellectual disabilities over a certain period of time and consequently conclude the primary triggers that influence ID people to demonstrate behavioral issues, including […]
• Law for People With Disabilities in California The family, the immediate environment of a person with disabilities, is the main link in the system of his or her care, socialization, the satisfaction of needs, support, and career guidance.
• The Resilience Experiences of People With Disabilities The focus of the study was on the participants’ lived experiences, as well as their attitudes towards certain aspects, so the use of interviews as a data collection method is justified.
• Literature Circles for Students With Learning Disabilities On the other hand, the affected individuals contend that the categorization should be removed to pave the way for the integration of assistances where all needs are attended without classification regardless of the student’s physical […]
• Students With Disabilities: Research Analysis In the process of undertaking this research and practical alignment, there is a misalignment in the inclusion of students with disabilities in the GE class.
• School Counselors for Students With Disabilities When the goals are set out, and the professional sphere is chosen, the counselor becomes responsible for the student’s preparation and reception of essential job skills as well as for the communication with the post-school […]
• Adaptive Behavior Skills and Intellectual Disabilities Four assessment tools are important for identifying adaptive behavior and skills: the Adaptive Behavior Scale, the Scale of Independent Behavior, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale.
• The Specific Needs of Students With Physical Disabilities The research problem that will be the focus of the planned paper relates to the specific needs of students with physical disabilities or behavioral issues in general classrooms.
• Assistive Technology for Students with Disabilities The United Nations Convention on the Rights of people with disabilities proposes a raft of measures to be undertaken by states to promote the wellbeing of individuals with disabilities.
• Job for Individuals With Physical Disabilities For instance, when a new technology is about to be installed, it will be rational for a number of workers based on departments to be selected and taken through how to use the innovation, such […]
• Therapeutic Vests for Children With Disabilities The purpose of this review is to examine the available literature on the effectiveness of using therapeutic vests, weighted vests, and pressure vests on children with Autism spectrum disorders, Attention deficit disorder, Pervasive Development Disorder, […]
• An Audit of the Accessibility of the College of the North Atlantic-Qatar to Individuals With Physical Disabilities It should be noted that structural presentation of the paper is considered to be one of the most important elements of the paper because it allows following the logical thought of the research paper.
• Learning Disabilities and Communication Disorders The students are also being taken through research-based and special education programs and the determination of these disorders is done cooperatively between teachers and specialists like psychologists.
• Children With Disabilities: Supporting Student Behavior The comfortable atmosphere will help the children to attend the class and also provide a good way to mingle with the children with disabilities.
• Americans With Disabilities and Act Amendments Act to the ADA: The Main Issues and Comparison Moreover, the essence of the major amendments to the ADA is disclosed in the article using comparison and implications of those changes for the public use in the spheres of employment and human resources management […]
• Teaching Character Education to Students With Behavioral and Learning Disabilities The purpose of the study was to determine the effectiveness of character education programs implemented in schools on students with behavioral and learning disabilities.
• Plan of the Kickball Game That Involves the Students With the Disabilities While simulating the situation where one is in charge of the PE class, one needs to remember that disability is never inability, thus the students with the disabilities can participate in any games as well […]
• American With Disabilities Amendment Act The main intention of the Act is that civilians receiving benefits or services through the measures of local and state governments may not be differentiated on the fundamentals of the individual’s physical disabilities.
• Genetic Testing Under Americans With Disabilities Act There is nothing surprising in the fact that the genetically tested employees counted the testing as a violation of their human rights, and The Americans with Disabilities Act was adopted in 1990.
• Americans With Disabilities Act for Employers However, in practice, an employer could still legally discriminate against those with disabilities An employer is obligated to make reasonable accommodations for an employee or applicant if they are ‘otherwise qualified’ to perform the responsibilities […]
• Teaching Language to Students With Severe Disabilities The objective of this study is to find the different approaches that can be used in teaching phonics and the whole language to students with varied severe disabilities.
• Program Improvement: Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities The government has been keen to present specific resources and support systems that can support the educational and career goals of these individuals.
• Daily Living Skills Training for Individuals With Learning Disabilities Teaching individuals with physical and mental disabilities the life skills needed to compensate for their disadvantages are considered to be the key factor to ensuring a relatively safe, functional, and happy life for those individuals.
• Teaching Adaptive Behavior Skills to Children Suffering From Intellectual Disabilities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia This theoretical framework will contribute to the validation of the perspectives used by the teachers to construct their system of beliefs regarding the process of teaching ABS to students with ID.
• Life Stages of People with Learning Disabilities In order to proceed with the observation, it is necessary to identify the normal issues likely to be encountered by the representatives of both groups.
• Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities in the Workplace Intellectual disability puts a strain on an individual’s ability to have a social life and communicate with other human beings due to the fact that their capability of adapting is limited to a certain extent.
• Lifespan Development and Learning Disabilities in Childhood Parents in this situation would most likely select the authoritative parenting style to manage children because they are left to make their own choices under a guided framework.
• Natural Supports for Individuals With Disabilities Natural supports can be defined as personal connections and associations that improve the quality of a person’s life; these primarily include family relationships and friendships and constitute “the first line of supports, followed by informal […]
• Ican Bike for Individuals With Disabilities I think iCan Bike is a very good initiative that targets a vulnerable population with a plethora of special needs and relies on the community in order to deliver the results.
• Ableism: Bias Against People With Disabilities People concerned with rights advocacy ought to ensure a facilitated awareness of the distressing impacts of ableism through the inclusion of the subject in private and public discussions.
• Children With Disabilities and Parental Mistreatment The information in the article is helpful for parents of children with disabilities and other parents since it assists them in appreciating the significance of each parent’s education in lessening the incidence of child disability.
• School Counselor Job for People With Disabilities A school counselor that faces the risk of having a cardiovascular incident is challenged by the possible implications of the disease that could have an adverse impact on the overall practice and well being. Therefore, […]
• Americans With Disabilities in Criminal Justice Agencies Since the legislation is relatively new, the process of the change requires such guidelines given the lack of an appropriate number of the best practices for the time being.
• Rights of Parents of Students With Disabilities Trying to fix the problem, parents should understand that the only way they are to behave is the move in the direction of a correct education of their child.
• Strategies for Teaching Students With Mild Disabilities The good thing about having a child with a disability in the family is that it teaches everyone in the household to be patient. The greatest problem I have encountered in having a child with […]
• Learning Disabilities and Memory Disorders Large amounts of phenylalanine in the blood will result in complications of the neurons in the central nervous system referred to as myelinization of the cerebral hemispheres.
• Students With Mild and Moderate Disabilities Sometimes students with disabilities are not able to understand what they are to do if the instruction is not explicit and systematic. It is difficult for students with mild and moderate disabilities to generalize the […]
• Teaching Children With Multiple Disabilities The teacher should also assist such a child in maintaining a perceptual continuum than learners who are not handicapped. On the same note, the teacher should not give the amount of work similar to children […]
• Constructivism Theory for Adolescents with Disabilities The key component of the theory is people’s interaction with the environment. Therefore, Vygotsky’s theory is effective in developing the social and academic skills of an adolescent with learning and behavior disabilities.
• Veterans With Disabilities: Integration and Employment In this paper, the researcher looks at the main barriers to employment and integration back to the society that the veterans face, and the manner in which the existing policies can be amended to help […]
• Intellectual Disabilities and Higher Education The access to higher education for individuals with ID and the attitude of their parents towards their performance can be analyzed with the help of equity theory.
• Students With Intellectual Disabilities and Their Independence Some of these programs in the US include the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, which provides grants for research, technology, and training for disabled individuals, as well as the Secondary Education Act of 2002, […]
• Independence of Students With Intellectual Disabilities In a humane and highly functional society, students with physical and intellectual disabilities should be allowed to function independently and enjoy their personal and academic life to the fullest.
• School Event Supporting Students With Disabilities Because of the vast opportunities for vulnerable groups to share their experiences and create a bond with the rest of the learners in a non-threatening environment, significant progress in encouraging disability awareness and the promotion […]
• Intellectual Disabilities and Limitations for Human Life The recognition of the lack of such skills can contribute to future opportunities for an independent life with effective interdependence and inclusion in the life of a society.
• Psychological Testing of Intellectual Disabilities Speaking of its psychometric properties, the PCL-5 is a valid and reliable self-report measure for the assessment and quantifying symptoms of PTSD.
• Young Adult Children With Intellectual Disabilities Like in the study, I would also use pilot testing of the questionnaire to ascertain its validity and reliability in measuring the intended variables. The descriptions of the concepts and terms in this study are […]
• Effective Teaching of Students with Disabilities To support the information that was posted in three blog entries, the author of this submission reviewed other literature on the subject to be able to support their point of view.
• Parenting Children With Learning Disabilities A number of parents also feel worthless since they get an impression that the respective learning disabilities portrayed in their children are due to their own genetic malformations.
• Caregivers’ Perceptions of People With Intellectual Disabilities The proposed study will present new approaches and practices that can be used to support the health needs of many patients with mental disabilities.
• Students With Learning Disabilities and Assessment The education of students with learning disabilities poses great difficulty for the majority of parents and educators. It may not be self-evident that the learning problems of students are attributable to learning disabilities.
• Patients With Learning Disabilities: Quality Care Although the current study is not aimed at detecting the differences in the efficacy of the intervention based on the gender of the participants, the outcomes of the research may create prerequisites for a follow-up […]
• Talent-Oriented Therapy: Patients With Learning Disabilities Although the tool to be designed in the course of the research will have to experience a range of tests, it will serve as the impetus for the further development of the framework.
• Emotional and Behavioural Disabilities in Schools Furthermore, there is equal doubt about whether the professionals in the sphere of education give no significance to the term of emotional and behavioural disability itself.
• Grandparents Raising Grandchildren With Disabilities In the case of their absence, these grandparents worry about the well-being of their disabled grandchildren and the influence they have on other children.
• Employment Equity Act: Aboriginals and Disabilities Persons If the Employment Equity Act is applied appropriately, the Act will guarantee that people in the labour force are given the opportunity of the equivalent admission to job openings along with identical management in the […]
• People With Disabilities: Local and a Federal Law’ Regulation To be more exact, the current standards need to be shaped so that the policy in question should not affect the social perception of people with physical or mental disabilities.
• Students With Learning Disabilities: Needs and Problems According to Chloe, there are three aspects associated with this complex issue, and they are the problem of appropriate parents and professionals’ intervention, the problem of identifying resources, and the problem of government’s funding.
• Students With Disabilities: Characteristics and Strategies Disability Categories Example Strategy English Learner Students 1 Autism is the developmental disability which influences the aspects of social interaction and different types of communication. The child with this disability can demonstrate various restricted and stereotypic patterns of behavior. The student with autism cannot focus attention on the teacher’s words, demonstrates the unusual gestures and […]
• Instructional Plan in Writing for Learners With Disabilities The purpose of this essay is to provide an instructional plan for learners with disabilities in writing. Writing skills require learners to account for the task, the aim of writing and audience.
• People with Disabilities: The Systemic Ableism Whereas the absence of disability in the fashion world is based on the dominant view of what is considered beautiful, the absence of disabled in politics can be explained with the lack of access to […]
• Writing Disabilities Management in Children Learning disorder is among the defects, which interferes with the writing abilities of a person or a child. The first way to identify children with writing disabilities is through observation of their behaviour.
• Developmental Disabilities and Lifelong Learning Some of the common transitional programs for children with developmental disabilities would include things such as books, learning manuals, and software programs intended to assist the children in adjusting to the new programs or settings.
• Action Plan for Patrons With Disabilities For instance, the writer of the essay suggests that in terms of facility planning, it is vital for the library to invest in wiring its facilities with audio induction loop.
• Remediation in Students with Disabilities Since this strategy is essentially crucial to the curriculum, this proposal will portray the importance of conducting a profound research that seeks to determine the effectiveness of remediation in reading.
• Improving Reading Performance of Students With Learning Disabilities The purpose of the present research is to assess the efficiency of utilizing Reading Racetracks to improve the reading of words found on the K-2 list key phrases adopted in the school district.
• Americans With Disabilities Act With all due respect to the efforts of the U.S.government to come up with a framework, which would allow for a faster and a more efficient integration of the disabled into the society, the fact […]
• GM’s Committal to People With Disabilities The company aims to create awareness about PWDs by providing support and information to employees with disabilities and other PWDs outside the GM community.
• Supporting Students with Speech Impairment This assistive technology uses appropriate symbols and techniques to support the needs of different learners. These technologies will support the needs of many learners.
• Physical Disabilities and Assistive Technology For example, learners with visual impairments can use text-to-speech programs. Learners with physical disabilities can be gathered for with the help of assistive technology devices such as adaptive keyboard and screen reading software for learners […]
• Sensory Disabilities and Age of Onset This can happen, for instance, when learning the subject that call for lots of diagrams, figures and illustrations to be applied, which may also give a challenge to the visually impaired students.
• High Incidence Disabilities and Pedagogical Strategies for Learning Disabilities In the context of disability, it is important to mention that this model is beneficial to students with learning disabilities as it involves teaching them how to approach tasks and use knowledge to complete learning […]
• Families With Members Who Experience Disabilities Early childhood services which offer professionalized care services to parents help them meet the needs of the special children so that parents are able to balance their strengths, resources and challenges in the family.
• Support Inclusion and Effective Practices for Students With Disabilities The purpose of this article is positioning that the ambition towards support inclusion and effective practices for students with disabilities have to be the groundwork for inclusive postsecondary education.
• Peer Buddy Program: Students with Disabilities in High School This research paper seeks to establish the purpose, importance, and rationale of the study of peer buddy program on students with disabilities in high school, in both social and academic grounds.
• An Action Plan for Serving Individuals With Disabilities – Library and Information Science First is the total cost of the whole project, the architectural design of the library building and whether it can accommodate the new developments and the current issues affecting accessibility with regards to the disabled.
• Internal Campaign Planning for Inclusion of Persons With Disabilities The key mandate of the act was to protect the employment rights of persons with disabilities. Secondly, newsletters can be developed so as to raise awareness on the importance of diversity and inclusion.
• Human Rights of People With Intellectual Disabilities Since disability is not inability, human rights’ advocates argue that perception of people with disabilities as disabled is discriminative and therefore call for their recognition as a minority people with unique abilities that do not […]
• Adolescents with Learning and Behaviour Disabilities: Graduation and Employment Difficulties One of the causes of high school dropout of this group of students is the feeling of being out of place.
• The Problem of Reading of Children With Learning Disabilities The difference in phonological awareness and reading between groups of children with SSDs and a language matched comparison group Reading fluency is a key tool of assessment the reading disability among children.
• People With Disabilities The code consists of sixteen articles that define the terms associated with disability in Saudi Arabia, the role of the government in the welfare of disabled children, administration of the bodies concerned with disabled person, […]
• Classroom Design for Children With Disabilities Furthermore, children with disabilities require individual attention from the teacher just like the other children, and if the classroom is congested it would be difficult for the teacher to reach such learners.
• Culturally Responsive Teaching of Students With Disabilities Cultural Responsive teaching is a teaching technique used to identify and address cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural and language needs of students with developmental needs as a way of providing them with assistance in all […]
• People With Disabilities and Abuse of People With Disabilities and Criminal Justice In addition, there is need to train police, lawyers and other persons in the criminal justice system on how to interact with persons with disabilities.
• Terminology and Etiquette Discussion Regarding Persons With Disabilities The media refer to people with disability as to persons with special needs, which reveals the inappropriate use of terminologies to refer to them.
• People With Disabilities and the Hotel Industry According to this act, the needs of people with disabilities should be satisfied in relation to the fixed rules in order to provide the necessary conditions for these persons and follow the principle of the […]
• Post Education for Adults With Disabilities Recommendations for further research and practice that refer to the disability problems are presented at the end of the paper with the purpose of enabling the interaction of services.
• The Right Attitude Towards Disabled People First, it can be questioned whether any form of physical or mental disability can be referred to as something that deserves to be ‘celebrated’, as the promoters of political correctness want us to believe.
• Assistive Technology for Kids with Learning Disabilities An increasing number of educators are incorporating frame routines to the web platform, in which a constant touch with both students and parents is maintained.
• Inclusion for Students With Severe Disabilities Modification and accommodation are the methods used to manipulate education system to make it favourable for these students. Modification and Accommodation are the methods used to manipulate the system to make it favourable for students […]
• The Impact of a Fitness Intervention on People with Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities This is one of the issues that should be singled out. This is one of the issues that should be considered.
• Current Trends and Issues in Educating Students With Disabilities Following the existence of cases of racial and ethnic bias across the United States educational system, the government has seen the importance to intervene in improving education in the U.S.
• General Curriculum for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Learners The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which learners with intellectual and developmental disabilities have access to the general education curriculum and the extent to which such access is related to […]
• US Should Ratify the UN Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities The UN has recognized the importance of the disabled person’s rights and freedoms and has come up with the UN convention on the Rights of People with disabilities, CRPD and has urged member states to […]
• The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act However, the gradual increase in the number of individuals with learning disabilities led to the disapproval of this method. As a result of this separation and early identification school performances tend to improve and the […]
• Defining Disabilities in Modern World Defining disability has not been easy due to the various opinions related to the understanding of the concept. Disability has significant impact on the society due to the relationships that exists between the individual and […]
• Preschool Teachers’ Actions for Integrating Children With Disabilities Of special interest was whether the gravity of a child’s educational requirements and the teacher’s knowledge about the disability condition were linked to teacher’s responses towards incorporating such children in their classrooms.
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IvyPanda . "160 Disabilities Topics for Research Papers & Essays." February 25, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/disabilities-essay-topics/.

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