research design thesis chapter 3

How To Write Chapter 3 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Detailed Guide)

The format of a PhD thesis proposal varies from one institution to another. In most cases, however, chapter 3 of the PhD thesis is the research methodology chapter.

This article discusses the main sections of the research methodology chapter and provides tips on how best to write it.

Introduction

Research design, population and sampling, random sampling, non-random sampling, data collection methods and tools, questionnaires, focus group discussions, observation, document review, ethical considerations, data analysis, limitations of the study, final thoughts on how to write chapter 3 of a phd thesis proposal.

The first section is a brief introduction to the chapter, which highlights what the chapter is about.

This section discusses the research design that the study will use. The research design should be guided by the research objectives and research questions the student wants to answer. The research design can be: quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods design.

In quantitative research, the study will collect, analyse and present numerical data in the form of statistics. The statistics can be descriptive, inferential, or a mix of both.

In qualitative research, the study collects, analyses and presents data that is in the form of words, opinions, or thoughts of the respondents. Its focus is on the lived-in experiences of the respondents with regard to the problem under investigation.

In mixed-methods research, the study uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. So some of the research questions render themselves to quantitative research, while others to qualitative research.

Each of these research designs has its pros and cons.

Population of study refers to the entire list of your subjects of interest. If the population is so small, the student can opt to include all the subjects in the study. However, if the population is large, it becomes difficult – both time-wise and resource-wise – to include all the subjects in the study.

A sample is a sub-set of the population of study from which data will be collected to enable the student understand the population.

An example of population vs. sample: Suppose a study aims at investigating the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in Kenya. The population of the study will be all the MSEs in Kenya, which are thousands in number, distributed across the country. It will be impossible for the student to collect data from all those MSEs and therefore a sample will be necessary. The sample size the student decides to use will depend on whether the study is quantitative, qualitative or both. For quantitative studies, a large sample size is necessary, while for qualitative study, the sample size need not be large.

Sampling is the process by which a sample is drawn from a population. There are two categories of sampling techniques, namely: random and non-random sampling. The use of either depends on your research design.

In random sampling, the sample is selected randomly and each subject in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

The advantage of random sampling is that the results from the sample can be generalised to the population, especially if the sample size is sufficiently large.

Random sampling is used primarily for quantitative studies.

In non-random sampling, the sample is selected deliberately rather than randomly. As a result, the subjects do not have an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

It is also referred to as purposive sampling, meaning that the sample being selected have a specific purpose.

Non-random sampling is used primarily for qualitative sampling.

In this section, the student is expected to discuss in detail the type of data he will collect, that is, whether primary or secondary data (or both) and how he will go about collecting the data from the sample. The methods and tools used also depend on the research design. They include:

Questionnaires are mostly used to collect quantitative data.

Questionnaires are structured in nature and include closed-ended questions.

There are four main types of closed-ended questions used in questionnaires:

• for example: how many children do you have?
• for example: does your household have a radio? 1. Yes 2. No
• for example: what is your highest level of education? 1. No education 2. Primary education 3. Secondary education 4. Tertiary level
• for example: please rate your level of satisfaction with the water services board. 1. Very dissatisfied 2. Dissatisfied 3. Neutral 4. Satisfied 5. Very satisfied

There are two forms of questionnaaire delivery: facilitated questionnaires and self-administered questionnaires.

For facilitated questionnaires, the researcher administers the questionnaire while in self-administered questionnaires, the respondent fills in the questionnaire without the presence of the researcher.

Self-administered questionnaires can be delivered by hand, or mailed via the post office or through email. Facilitated questionnaires can be done either face-to-face or through telephone. Each of these options has its pros and cons.

Interviews are oral discussions between the researcher and the respondent.

Unlike questionnaires, interviews are semi-structured. The researcher uses an interview guide to guide the discussion. The interview guide has some questions that the researcher asks the respondent. However, subsequent questions and discussions are determined by the responses given by the respondent to previous questions.

The flow of interviews will therefore vary from one respondent to another depending on their personalities and openness to responding to the questions.

Whereas interviews are held with individuals, focus group discussions (FGDs) are held with a group of respondents who are key to the problem under investigation.

The participants for an FGD should be selected carefully to represent diverse subjects of the population under investigation.

In the example of the study on the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on micro and small enterprises in Kenya, the student can create a focus group that has the following members: a female-owned enterprise, a male-owned enterprise, a youth-owned enterprise, a family-run enterprise, a non-family-run enterprise, customers of the enterprises, and an employee of the Micro and Small Enterprises Authority (MSEA). Such a focus group would have rich discussions of the views of the different players in the industry.

Observation is also a method of data collection that is commonly used. There are two types of observation: participant observation and non-participant observation.

In participant observation, the researcher immerses himself into the environment of study. In the MSEs study, for example, the researcher would choose to work in one of the enterprises for a period of time where he would observe how the business performs on a day-to-day basis.

In non-participant observation, the researcher removes himself from the environment of study and instead observes from a distance. In the MSEs study, for example, the researcher would go somewhere close to an enterprise and observe how the business performs e.g. how many clients visit the business on a day-to-day basis.

Each observation type has its own pros and cons.

During observation, the researcher should use an observation checklist that guides him on what needs to be observed and the frequency of observation.

In this data collection methods, the student obtains relevant documents to his study and reviews them in-depth. For instance, in the MSEs, the student can review the MSEs Policy of Kenya, Strategic Plan of the Micro and Small Enterprises Authority etc. Such documents are useful in informing the researcher the current state of affairs of the problem under investigation.

This section highlights the ethical considerations that would be followed during the data collection process. The ethical considerations vary from study to study and include:

Consent: the researcher should seek informed consent from the respondent before the data collection begins. For instance, when administering the questionnaire or conducting interviews, the researcher should start by informing the respondent what the study is about, how the respondent was selected, and the benefits of the study and then seek permission to continue with the study. The consent can be in written or oral form.

Compensation for participation: while participating in the study should be voluntary, some research have allowance for monetary compensation. The respondents should be informed of any plans to compensate them but after they have participated in the study, not before.

Confidentiality: the researcher should assure the respondents that their responses will be kept confidential.

Dissemination of the study findings with the respondents: there should be a plan for the student to disseminate the results of the study with the participants, for instance, through validation workshops or written publications.

Additionally, most academic institutions require their students to obtain ethical clearance for their research from the relevant authorities. Students should check if this requirement applies to them and follow the necessary procedure.

In this section, the student should discuss how the data collected will be analysed. Data analysis methods and techniques vary depending on whether the data is quantitative or qualitative.

For quantitative research, the interest of data analysis is the numbers which can be obtained through descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics is usually the first step in analysing quantitative data. There are three categories of descriptive statistics:

• Measures of frequency: frequency table or cross-tabulation table.
• Measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode.
• Measures of variability: range, standard deviation and variance.

Inferential analysis goes a step further and looks at whether the results from the sample can be generalised to the wider population. For studies that involve interventions, inferential analysis is used to check if the intervention has any impact on the population in which it was implemented.

Some inferential analysis techniques include:

• Checking for differences between groups: t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Chi-square test.
• Checking for correlation or causation between variables: linear regression, logistic regression (logit, probit, multinomial logit/probit models etc).

The choice of data analysis technique will depend on the type of data the student has. For instance, a dependent variable that is continuous will use a different analysis technique from a dependent variable that is categorical in nature. Additionally, the choice of the data analysis technique should be guided by the research questions. The results from the analysis should be able to provide answers to the research questions posed.

For qualitative research, data analysis involves analysing the content of the interviews and focus group discussions. The content can be in different forms such as interview recordings and hand-written notes.

The recordings should be transcribed first and the notes should be organised well before analysis can take place.

The analysis of qualitative data involves coding the data, indexing the data and framing the data to identify the themes that emerge from the data.

Besides discussing the data analysis techniques, the student should discuss the softwares that will be used for analysis. There are many softwares in the market that are used for quantitative (such as SPSS and STATA) and qualitative data (such as NVivo).

The last section in the research methodology chapter discusses the potential limitations of the study and how the limitations will be mitigated. An example of study limitation is low response rate of questionnaires, which can be mitigated through triangulation.

The limitations of the study will vary from one study to another and depend on the context within which the study is conducted.

This article provided a detailed guide on how to write the research methodology chapter of a PhD thesis proposal. The research methodology chapter is informed by the research problem and research questions specified in chapter 1 of the thesis proposal. Students should therefore think through carefully their research study from the beginning because what is in the introduction chapter informs the content in the remaining chapters of the proposal and final thesis.

Related posts

How To Write Chapter 1 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Practical Guide)

How To Write Chapter 2 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Beginner’s Guide)

Grace Njeri-Otieno

Grace Njeri-Otieno is a Kenyan, a wife, a mom, and currently a PhD student, among many other balls she juggles. She holds a Bachelors' and Masters' degrees in Economics and has more than 7 years' experience with an INGO. She was inspired to start this site so as to share the lessons learned throughout her PhD journey with other PhD students. Her vision for this site is "to become a go-to resource center for PhD students in all their spheres of learning."

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HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER THREE OF YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT (RESEARCH METHODOLOGY) | ResearchWap Blog

• Posted: Friday, 17 April 2020
• By: ResearchWap Admin

How To Write Chapter Three Of Your Research Project (Research Methodology)

Methodology In Research Paper

Chapter three of the research project or the research methodology is another significant part of the research project writing. In developing the chapter three of the research project, you state the purpose of research, research method you wish to adopt, the instruments to be used, where you will collect your data, types of data collection, and how you collected it.

This chapter explains the different methods to be used in the research project. Here you mention the procedures and strategies you will employ in the study such as research design, study design in research, research area (area of the study), the population of the study, etc.

You also tell the reader your research design methods, why you chose a particular method, method of analysis, how you planned to analyze your data. Your methodology should be written in a simple language such that other researchers can follow the method and arrive at the same conclusion or findings.

You can choose a survey design when you want to survey a particular location or behavior by administering instruments such as structured questionnaires, interviews, or experimental; if you intend manipulating some variables.

The purpose of chapter three (research methodology) is to give an experienced investigator enough information to replicate the study. Some supervisors do not understand this and require students to write what is in effect, a textbook.

A research design is used to structure the research and to show how all of the major parts of the research project, including the sample, measures, and methods of assignment, work together to address the central research questions in the study. The chapter three should begin with a paragraph reiterating the purpose of research.

It is very important that before choosing design methods, try and ask yourself the following questions:

Will I generate enough information that will help me to solve the research problem by adopting this method?

Method vs Methodology

I think the most appropriate in methods versus methodology is to think in terms of their inter-connectedness and relationship between both. You should not beging thinking so much about research methods without thinking of developing a research methodology.

Metodologia or methodology is the consideration of your research objectives and the most effective method  and approach to meet those objectives. That is to say that methodology in research paper is the first step in planning a research project work. 

Design Methodology: Methodological Approach                

Example of methodology in research paper, you are attempting to identify the influence of personality on a road accident, you may wish to look at different personality types, you may also look at accident records from the FRSC, you may also wish to look at the personality of drivers that are accident victims, once you adopt this method, you are already doing a survey, and that becomes your  metodologia or methodology .

Your methodology should aim to provide you with the information to allow you to come to some conclusions about the personalities that are susceptible to a road accident or those personality types that are likely to have a road accident. The following subjects may or may not be in the order required by a particular institution of higher education, but all of the subjects constitute a defensible in metodologia or methodology chapter.

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Methodology

A  methodology  is the rationale for the research approach, and the lens through which the analysis occurs. Said another way, a methodology describes the “general research strategy that outlines the way in which research is to be undertaken” The methodology should impact which method(s) for a research endeavor are selected in order to generate the compelling data.

Example Of Methodology In Research Paper :

• Phenomenology: describes the “lived experience” of a particular phenomenon
• Ethnography: explores the social world or culture, shared beliefs and behaviors
• Participatory: views the participants as active researchers
• Ethno methodology: examines how people use dialogue and body language to construct a world view
• Grounding theory*: assumes a blank slate and uses an inductive approach to develop a new theory

A  method  is simply the tool used to answer your research questions — how, in short, you will go about collecting your data.

Methods Section Of Research Paper Example :

• Contextual inquiry
• Usability study
• Diary study

If you are choosing among these, you might say “what method should I use?” and settle on one or more methods to answer your research question.

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Research Design Definition: WRITING A RESEARCH DESIGN

A qualitative study does not have variables. A scientific study has variables, which are sometimes mentioned in Chapter 1 and defined in more depth in Chapter 3. Spell out the independent and dependent, variables. An unfortunate trend in some institutions is to repeat the research questions and/or hypotheses in both Chapter 1 and Chapter 3. Sometimes an operational statement of the research hypotheses in the null form is given to set the stage for later statistical inferences. In a quantitative study, state the level of significance that will be used to accept or reject the hypotheses.

Pilot Study

In a quantitative study, a survey instrument that the researcher designed needs a pilot study to validate the effectiveness of the instrument, and the value of the questions to elicit the right information to answer the primary research questions in. In a scientific study, a pilot study may precede the main observation to correct any problems with the instrumentation or other elements in the data collection technique. Describe the pilot study as it relates to the research design, development of the instrument, data collection procedures, or characteristics of the sample.

Instruments

In a research study, the instrument used to collect data may be created by the researcher or based on an existing instrument. If the instrument is the researcher created, the process used to select the questions should be described and justified. If an existing instrument is used, the background of the instrument is described including who originated it, and what measures were used to validate it.

If a Likert scale is used, the scale should be described. If the study involves interviews, an interview protocol should be developed that will result in a consistent process of data collection across all interviews. Two types of questions are found in an interview protocol: the primary research questions, which are not asked of the participants, and the interview questions that are based on the primary research questions and are asked of the participants.

In a qualitative study, this is the section where most of the appendices are itemized, starting with letters of permission to conduct the study and letters of invitation to participate with the attached consent forms. Sample: this has to do with the number of your participants or subjects as the case may be. Analysis (how are you planning to analyze the results?)

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EFFECTIVE GUIDE AND METHODOLOGY SAMPLES

This chapter deals effectively with the research methods to be adopted in conducting the research, and it is organized under the following sub-headings:

• Research Design
• Area of Study

The population of the Study

• Sample and Sampling Techniques
• Instruments for Data Collection

The validity of the Instrument

Reliability of the Instrument

• Administration of the instruments
• Scoring the instruments

Method of Data Collection

Method of Data Analysis

Research Design:

This has to do with the structure of the research instrument to be used in collecting data. It could be in sections depending on different variables that form the construct for the entire topic of the research problems. A reliable instrument with a wrong research design will adversely affect the reliability and generalization of the research. The choice of design suitable for each research is determined by many factors among which are: kind of research, research hypothesis, the scope of the research, and the sensitive nature of the research.

Area of Study:

Research Area; this has to do with the geographical environment of the study area where the places are located, the historical background when necessary and commercial activities of that geographical area. For example, the area of the study is Ebonyi State University. At the creation of Ebonyi State in 1996, the Abakaliki campus of the then ESUT was upgraded to Ebonyi State University College by Edict no. 5 of Ebonyi State, 1998 still affiliated to ESUT with Prof. Fidelis Ogah, former ESUT Deputy Vice-Chancellor as the first Rector. In 1997, the Faculty of Applied and Natural Sciences with 8 departments was added to the fledging University, and later in 1998 when the ESUT Pre-Science Programme was relocated to Nsukka, the EBSUC Pre-Degree School commenced lectures in both Science and Arts in replacement of the former. This study focused on the students of the Business Education department in Ebonyi state university.

The population is regarded in research work as the type of people and the group of people under investigation. It has to be specific or specified. For example educational study teachers in Lagos state. Once the population is chosen, the next thing is to choose the samples from the population.

According to Uma (2007), the population is referred to as the totality of items or object which the researcher is interested in. It can also be the total number of people in an area of study. Hence, the population of this study comprised of all the students in the department of Business Education, Ebonyi State University which is made up of year one to four totaling 482. The actual number for the study was ascertained using Yaro-Yamane's formula which stated thus:

n   =        N

N is the Population

1 is constant

e is the error margin

Then, n   =         482

1+482(0.05)2

= 214.35 approximately 214

Sample and sampling technique:

It may not be possible to reach out to the number of people that form the entire population for the study to either interview, observe, or serve them with copies of the questionnaire. To be realistic, the sample should be up to 20% of the total population. Two sampling techniques are popular among all the sampling techniques. These are random and stratified random sampling techniques. (A). in Random Sampling, the writers select any specific number from a place like a school, village, etc. (B). In Stratified Random Sampling, one has to indicate a specific number from a stratum which could be a group of people according to age, qualification, etc. or different groups from different locations and different considerations attached.

Instruments for Data Collection:

This is a device or different devices used in collecting data. Example: interview, questionnaire, checklist, etc. instrument is prepared in sets or subsections, each set should be an entity thus asking questions about a particular variable to be tested after collecting data. The type of instrument used will determine the responses expected. All questions should be well set so as to determine the reliability of the instrument.

This has to do with different measures in order to determine the validity and reliability of the research instrument. For example, presenting the drafted questionnaire to the supervisor for scrutiny. Giving the questionnaire to the supervisor for useful comments and corrections would help to validate the instrument.

The test-retest reliability method is one of the simplest ways of testing the stability and reliability of an instrument over time. The test-retest approach was adopted by the researcher in establishing the reliability of the instrument. In doing this 25 copies of the questionnaire were administered on twenty-five selected respondents. After two weeks another 25 copies of the same questionnaire were re-administered on the same group. Their responses on the two occasions were correlated using Parsons Product Moment Correlation. A co-efficient of 0.81 was gotten and this was high enough to consider the instrument reliable.

Administration of the instruments:

Here, the writer states whether he or she administers the test personally or through an assistant. He also indicates the rate of return of the copies of the questionnaire administered.

Scoring the instruments:

Here items on the questionnaire or any other device used must be assigned numerical values. For example, 4 points to strongly agree, 3 points to agree, 2 points to disagree, and 1 point to strongly disagree.

Table of Analysis

The researcher collected data using the questionnaire. Copies of the questionnaire were administered by the researcher on the respondents. All the respondents were expected to give maximum co-operation, as the information on the questionnaire is all on things that revolve around their study. Hence, enough time was taken to explain how to tick or indicate their opinion on the items stated in the research questionnaire.

In this study, the mean was used to analyze the data collected. A four (4) point Likert scale was used to analyze each of the questionnaire items.

The weighing was as follows:

VGE—————- Very Great Extent (4 points)

GE—————– Great Extent (3 points)

LE—————– Little Extent (2 points)

VLE—————- Very Little Extent (1 point)

SA—————– Strongly Agree (4 points)

A——————- Agree (3 points)

D—————— Disagree (2 points)

SD—————- Strongly Disagree (1 point)

The mean of the scale will then be determined by summing up the points and dividing their number as follows with the formula:

Where; x= mean

f= frequency

X= Nominal value of the option

∑= summation

N= Total Number

Therefore, the mean of the scale is 2.5.

This means that any item statement with a mean of 2.50 and above is considered agreed by the respondents and any item statement below 2.5 is considered disagreed.

EDITORS SOURCE: How To Write Chapter Three Of Your Research Project (Research Methodology)

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Ultrafast Dynamics of Excited Molecules probed using Nonlinear Spectroscopy

Some of the simplest molecules that are found in abundance in nature, like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water can be playgrounds for complex quantum mechanical phenomenon. Although we can calculate their static properties, like binding energies, equilibrium geometries and ionization/decay rates with extraordinary precision, their dynamics offer new avenues for exploration. Although analytical techniques have been successfully applied in studying single-particle and many-particle systems, few-particle systems like simple molecules are still best understood through a combination of numerical calculations and experimental work. However, the small size of these molecules endows them with dynamics that occur on timescales of a few picoseconds to a few attoseconds, making their experimental study challenging. The overarching goal of this work is the study of such ‘ultrafast’ dynamics in excited state molecules/atoms, by developing and demonstrating novel optical probes of quantum dynamics.

One way to probe ultrafast dynamics in molecules is by measuring their nonlinear optical response. Such a measurement can potentially track the evolution of the symmetries of excited molecules, shedding light on their transient dynamics. We start chapter 1 with a brief discussion of the formalism behind nonlinear optical spectroscopy. Direct measurement of ultrafast (and ultraweak) optical pulses is discussed as a useful probe of nonlinear processes. After presenting preliminary results on direct electric field reconstruction, experimental work on measuring emitted nonlinear electric fields from impulsively aligned molecules is discussed. In such an experiment, however, contributions from both aligned and unaligned molecules are present, and new experimental capabilities had to be developed to disentangle and measure the ultraweak signal from aligned molecules. Following a detailed discussion of the developed measurement capabilities, results from experiments done on aligned carbon dioxide and nitrogen molecules are discussed.

Unlike solids, where electronic states can be excited with visible/UV light, binding energies in isolated atoms/molecules are on the order of electron-volts (eVs), and they need vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) light to excite electronically. Polyatomic molecules, like ethylene, when excited to an electronic state with VUV light, often relax back to the ground state by redistributing energy to their internal degrees of freedom non-adiabatically. These relaxation pathways are important in many chemical and biological systems, and control the yield of chemical reactions ranging from elementary reactions involving few atoms to large biomolecules such as DNA and proteins. For instance, in the photochemical reaction of the protein Rhodopsin, considered to be the primary event in human vision. In chapter 2 we discuss progress made towards extending nonlinear response measurements to study ultrafast dynamics in electronically excited molecules, using a high-harmonic VUV source. Details about the design of the high-harmonic generation beamline, and preliminary experimental data are presented. In chapter 3 we discuss preliminary theoretical work on the development of an EUV entangled-photon source, using two-photon emission from the metastable 2s state in neutral Helium. Such a source, if demonstrated, can possibly even extended to the zeptosecond regime in the future.

Degree Type

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Physics and Astronomy

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, usage metrics.

• Nonlinear optics and spectroscopy